















NO. 


This book is charged to the employe to whom 
issued, and its price, 50 cents, will be deducted from 
his pay unless the book is returned to the proper 
offioer on leaving the service. 


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DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA 
& WESTERN RAILROAD. 



SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS 

REGARDING 

FUEL ECONOMY. 



Economical Firing. 

Economical Boiler-Feeding. 


ECONOMICAL USE OF STEAM. 




THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGRESS, 

Two Copies Received 

OCT, 5 1901 

Copyright entry 

CLASS CO XXo. No. 

/ 

COPY 3. 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in 1901, in the office of the Librarian 
of Congress, at Washington. 


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GENERAL NOTICE. 


The purpose of these Instructions is to bring 
about a uniform understanding as to the best 
methods of firing and running locomotives with 
regard to fuel economy. 

It is the desire of the Company that, so far as 
can be done consistently with the safe and expedi¬ 
tious movement of trains, these Instructions shall 
be followed by all engineers and firemen, so that 
waste of fuel may be avoided. 

All engineers and firemen will familiarize them¬ 
selves with the Instructions regarding BOTH anthra¬ 
cite and bituminous coal, and carefully profit by 
them to use EITHER kind of coal with the greatest 
economy. 

Firemen will be required to pass an examination 
regarding economical firing before being advanced 
from a lower to a higher grade of service; and to 
pass an examination regarding economical boiler¬ 
feeding and economical use of steam before being 
promoted to the position of engineer. 


Approved : 


T. S. LLOYD, 

Supt. Motive Power and Machinery. 


W. H. TRUESDALE, 

President. 


Scranton, Pa., 

September i, 1901. 


/ 




M 



ANTHRACITE COAL-BURNING LOCOMOTIVE, CLASS 19-B.—D. L. &. W. 





























































ECONOMICAL FIRING. 


CHAPTER I. 

“All matters said and done relating to the economical use 
of coal on locomotives will be fruitless of good results if the 
enginemen are ignorant of the simple principles of combustion, 
and careless about educating themselves in this necessary 
branch of their calling. Enginemen showing a disposition of 
carelessness in the use of coal, or in any way ignoring the 
principles governing its economical use, are as much unfitted 
to have charge of a locomotive as if such ignorance and care¬ 
lessness were shown toward the rules governing the operations 
of trains.” 

— Report of Committee, American Railway Master Mechanics’ Association. 

Annual Cost of Fuel. 

Excepting wages paid to engineers and firemen, 
the largest single expense in the operation of the Dela¬ 
ware, Lackawanna & Western Railroad is for 
locomotive fuel, which for the year ending December 
31, 1900, cost the Company $1,285,492.98. In other 
words, the Company pays over $1,285,000 a year for 
the heat to make the steam to run its locomotives, 
for it is plain that the fuel is burned for no other pur¬ 
pose than the generation of this needed heat. In the 
year named the total amount of wages paid both 
engineers and firemen was only $24,632.58 more 
than the cost of the fuel burned by the locomotives. 

The above quotation from the report of a committee 
of the Master Mechanics' Association shows that simi¬ 
lar care should be exercised by engineers to use fuel 
economically as to haul trains with safety. As is well 



8 


known, carelessness in the movement of trains often 
results in damage to and destruction of the property of 
the Company. 

Fuel is Property. 

The property of the Company consists not only 
of its right of way and roadbed, rolling equipment and 
buildings, but also of each article of supply purchased 
for its needs. The fuel supply for locomotives (pur¬ 
chased for use, not waste) is property, exceed¬ 
ing in value many cars and many engines. Careless or 
inefficient enginemen who waste fuel destroy the prop¬ 
erty of the Company, in a different way, but with simi¬ 
lar net results as if they smashed cars and engines. 

Therefore it is desired that all engineers and fire¬ 
men, without relaxing in the slightest the* necessary 
vigilance for safety, shall yet direct their earnest 
attention and efforts to economize fuel in every practi¬ 
cable way, and avoid any unnecessary waste or loss. 

Qualifications of Firemen. 

Good judgment is a locomotive fireman’s most 
important need, aside from necessary intelligence and 
physical ability. Firemen aiming to make their work 
as easy as possible, especially those desiring promo¬ 
tion, should try to cultivate and give early evidence of 
the possession of this first necessary requirement 

OF A GOOD ENGINEER. 

The display of good judgment by a fireman while 
performing his duties proves him to possess a clear 
head and a steady nerve — qualities absolutely neces¬ 
sary in railway operating, for the safety of life and 
property. On the contrary, the display of poor judg- 


9 


ment by a fireman declares not only his lack of fitness 
for his present work, but proves him to be utterly unfit 
to be entrusted with the more grave and responsible 
duties of an engineer. Promotion on railways seldom 
finds such men. 

Good judgment correctly measures all the condi¬ 
tions, quickly when necessary, and prompts the right 
action at the right time. There is abundant opportu¬ 
nity for its exercise in firing a locomotive, and although 
much information shall be given in these Instructions 
about the art of firing, yet the value of this to a fire¬ 
man, or to the Company, will depend altogether on the 
faithfulness and good judgment with which it is 
applied to regulate his daily practice. 

As we proceed with the study of the best methods 
of firing and running locomotives, the need of correct 
judgment will constantly appear. No matter how 
much a fireman may know, if he does not exercise 
his knowledge with a broad comprehension of all the 
conditions involved in his work, he will surely do that 
work in a wrong way. He will blunder. His blunders 
are the result of poor judgment. Another man hav¬ 
ing perhaps a smaller stock of knowledge, but zealous 
to consider and take advantage of all the conditions 
involved in his work, will do the work properly; he 
will exercise good judgment, and in doing so he will 
save himself much unnecessary labor, and the Com¬ 
pany much expensive fuel. 

Willingness is the second great need of the suc¬ 
cessful fireman. This means a disposition to learn and 
practice the best methods of work and to profit by the 
experience and advice of engineers, especially the 
engineer responsible for the proper performance of 


10 


the engine on which a fireman is employed, unless, of 
course, his advice should be opposed to the rules of the 
Company, or the dictates of intelligent common sense. 
Yet the authority of the engineer while on the road 
should always be respected by self-respecting firemen, 
remembering that the engineer is, in reality, the 
captain of the engine, responsible for its condition, its 
safety and its performance. Firemen who aim to be 
engineers themselves some day should be too respect¬ 
ful of the occupation of locomotive running to falter 
in due respect and obedience to their engineers. 

Preparing the Engine for the Run. 

In getting an engine ready to leave on its run it is 
always best to “ get around ” or be on hand in ample 
season before leaving-time. There is nearly always 
enough to do before starting to keep a fireman busy 
thirty or forty minutes. 

The aim of the men who “ fire up ” the engines is to 
generate sufficient steam pressure to run the engines 
out of the roundhouse and across the turntable. These 
men are sometimes careless about the condition of the 
bed of fire on the grates, especially about placing the 
fire evenly over the entire grate surface. They are 
apt to leave the corners bare, and especially to leave 
bare the forward part of the grates, next to the tube- 
sheet. This is just the part that should be kept well 
covered with live fire in order to prevent cold air 
being drawn into the tubes to .chill them and cause 
them to leak. 

When air is allowed to pass through the fire-box of 
a locomotive without being brought into close contact 
with burning fuel it reaches the tubes much colder 


11 


than they are, and immediately chills, contracts and 
damages them. This action and injury is intensified 
by every increase of draft under such circumstances. 
Therefore the use of the blower, and all means of 
increasing the draft, should be avoided as much as 
possible until the grates are covered all over with 

LIVE FIRE. 

In mounting his engine to go out, therefore, it 
becomes a fireman’s first duty to look at his fire and 
note its condition. “A stitch in time ” may save both 
delay and trouble. As soon as he is ready for work 
he should see that the grates are completely covered 
with live fire, and tfiat if any fresh coal is needed on the 
fire it shall be supplied. The height of the water-level 
and the amount of steam pressure on the boiler must 
be his guides in this matter. It is necessary that at 
leaving time the steam pressure shall be nearly as high 
as is allowed, and that the boiler shall be as full of 
water as it properly may be, generally with two “ full 
gauges,” or a height of water-level to equal the same. 

If the steam pressure is low it should be raised 
gradually, before starting. If the water-level is low, 
it should be raised to the proper height by operating 
the injector in such a way that it will cause no great 

FALL OF STEAM PRESSURE. 

After making sure that his fire is in good condition, 
a fireman should next make equally sure that the tube- 
sheet is clear of adhering clinker or “ honeycomb ”; 
■ also that the ash-pan is clean and that (on engines hav¬ 
ing shaking grates) the grates are all level and con¬ 
nected. This must be done by getting down off the 
engine and looking carefully into the ash-pan. Notice 
if each bolt connecting the grate-rods and grate-bars is 


12 


in place. Sometimes these get displaced through rough 
usage by roundhouse men; and it is very important 
that any such defects should be discovered and reported 
before starting out, otherwise it is likely that the dis¬ 
connected grates will be. burned, and delay to the train 
may result, either of which might prove disastrous to 
reputation or position. 

Before starting the fireman should also make 
sure that the smoke-box is clear of cinders; and that 
he has upon the engine the necessary tools for hand¬ 
ling the coal and attending to his fire. Every needed 
preparation should be made before leaving so that, 
after starting, full attention may be given to the work 
of properly firing the engine. 

Thorough inspection before starting of both 
the fire and its appurtenances by firemen, and the gen¬ 
eral condition of the engine by engineers is of first 
importance, so as to avoid engine failures on the road, 
and the resulting expensive delays to trains. 


13 


CHAPTER II. 

Bituminous and Anthracite Coal. 

Two kinds of fuel are used on this Railroad — 
Anthracite Coal and Bituminous Coal. 

To properly understand the difference in the burn¬ 
ing of anthracite and bituminous coal, it is necessary 
to understand their difference in composition; and 
this is best explained by reference to the original for¬ 
mation of coal, as taught by science. 

The great trees that first grew upon the earth are 
known as the sigillaria or seal tree; and they were 
of curious formation. They were four or five feet 
thick, almost branchless and very tall. They some¬ 
times had a few thick limbs near the top, and they were 
covered with a long grass-like foliage. These trees 
grew rapidly and had a pithy interior, and while their 
trunks had but little strength as wood, they were well 
adapted to the formation of coal. 

The crust of the earth was yet comparatively thin, 
and the internal disturbances frequently caused much 
greater earthquakes than we know now. In these up¬ 
heavals of the soil whole forests were buried under the 
sand and clay beds. The new soil gave birth to fresh 
growths of trees and vegetation, and these in turn were 
swallowed up and buried by the earthquakes, or the 
shifting of the soil through the actions of the waters 
and the winds. 

The buried wood became a soft, black substance 
that contained all the elements of the wood, only 


14 


in a changed form. This soft substance was com¬ 
pressed and hardened by the immense pressure of 
the ever-increasing layers of soil above it, sometimes 
hundreds and sometimes thousands of feet deep, and 
became the coal that we burn today. 

Bituminous Coal. 

The kind of coal thus produced is known as 
bituminous or “ soft ” coal; and it is composed of 
carbon, sulphur and earthy matter mixed in its 
formation, and gaseous matter and moisture. These 
substances are generally found in ordinary soft coal 


about as follows: 

Fixed carbon.55 per cent 

Gaseous matter and moisture.35 per cent 

Ash (incombustible matter). 10 per cent 


Anthracite Coal. 

Anthracite, or “ hard ” coal, differs from bitumi¬ 
nous or “ soft ” coal in the same way that coke does. 
In fact, anthracite coal is natural coke. It is 
commonly known that coke is made by heating coal 
red hot in a retort from which air is excluded, per¬ 
mitting its gaseous matter to escape, but not permit¬ 
ting the coal to burn. 

This is exactly what occurred to form anthracite 
coal. It was previously bituminous coal, but some¬ 
time during the many thousands of years it lay buried 
far in the depths of the soil, it was subjected to intense 
heat, doubtless from some disturbance of the earth’s 
crust that permitted the heat of the internal fires (rag¬ 
ing even now, as our volcanic eruptions show) to reach 
the imbedded coal and heat it red or white hot, thus 





15 


causing its gaseous matter to escape exactly in the 
same way as we make coke today by heating coal to 
redness in a retort from which air is excluded. 

The coal thus heated gave up its gaseous matter, 
which escaped, and the great pressure of the soil and 
rocks (averaging 80 pounds of weight per cubic foot) 
above the hot, soft coke, compressed it into the solid 
hard blocks which we know as anthracite coal. 

The following table shows the composition of an 
average quality of anthracite coal: 


Fixed carbon. 92 per cent 

Gaseous matter and moisture. 5 per cent 

Ash . 3 per cent 


Anthracite coal is nearly all “ fixed ” carbon, and 
burns on the grate in the solid state, as red-hot or 
white-hot coals, but bituminous coal is generally over 
one-third gaseous matter that burns on the fire as 
flame or else produces smoke. 

Process, of Combustion, Anthracite Coal. 

It is important to know that the coal and the air 
can combine (burn) in different ways, and in doing so 
give off greatly different amounts of heat. Of course, 
as our object in burning the coal to make steam for a 
locomotive is to get all the heat we can, we should be 
careful that the coal burns in the way that will pro¬ 
duce the most heat. If the supply of air to the fire is 
sufficient the coal will burn perfectly, and give off 
three times more heat than if the supply of air is 
restricted and the combustion is imperfect. Firemen 
who do not keep their bed of fire thin, and the grates 
free of ashes, in order to permit free access of air 
through the fire, struggle uselessly against this 
disadvantage. 





16 


If, in burning, the coal is supplied with sufficient air 
the combustion will be perfect, and a pound of good 
coal so burned (under perfect conditions) will make 
enough heat to turn about twelve pounds of cold water 
into steam. If the supply of air is restricted, then 
imperfect combustion will result. A pound of coal so 
burned will make two-thirds less heat than if suffi¬ 
cient air were supplied, or only enough heat to convert 
about four pounds of cold water into steam; hence it 
is apparent that if the supply of air to a fire is restricted 
in any way the heat of the fire is greatly reduced. 

This is the Chief Lesson in Firing. A fireman 
can do nothing that will so effectually make steam, 
save coal, and lighten his labor as to keep his bed of 
fire in such condition that the air has always easy 
access through it to the fresh coal he puts on the fire. 

About three hundred cubic feet of air must pass 
through our fire to give the best results from the burn¬ 
ing of each pound of coal put upon it. Shovels, such as 
locomotives are generally provided with, hold, when 
ordinarily full, fifteen pounds of coal. When an 
engine is in need of a “fire” sometimes four shovel¬ 
fuls will be scattered over the surface of the fire. For 
the sake of illustration we will say four shovelfuls, 
sixty pounds, and this quantity will last about three 
minutes;—18,000 cubic feet of air, eight box cars 

FULL, MUST PASS THROUGH THE FIRE IN THIS SHORT 
time to perfectly burn the charge of coal, or burn it 
in the way that will produce its greatest heat. 

Access of Too Much Air. 

While it is thus plainly important that to secure the 
best results, a free admission of air through the grates 






Cross Section. End Elevation. Longitudinal Sections *flew, Showing Boiler Cut in Half, Lengthwise. 

View Showing Boiler Cut Half-way Across Through Fire-box. 

BOILER OF A NTH I! CITE COAL BURNINC LOCOMOTIVE, CLASS 1 9-B - DELAWARE, LACKAWANNA & WESTERN RAILROAD. 





















































17 


is necessary, yet it must not be understood that the 
more air admitted the better, for all in excess of the 
quantity needed for perfect combustion has no effect 
except to absorb the heat of the fire and carry it away. 

Much care, therefore, must be taken to keep the 
bed of fire thick enough, and of uniform depth over the 
entire grate surface, to prevent access of too much air. 
The time to guard against this most carefully is in 
shaking the grates which, while running, should only 
be done after a fresh “ fire ” has been put in. Even 
then much care must be taken not to shake them so hard 
as to. injure or make holes in the fire. 


18 


CHAPTER III. 

Firing Small Anthracite Coal. 

As soon as a fireman arrives on his engine, ready 
for work, he should notice if the fire has been well- 
cleaned ; also if there are any dark or dead spots in the 
fire. If the fire has not been thoroughly cleaned, any 
remaining ashes or clinkers should be knocked out. 
Dead spots may be detected, if any exist, by a brief 
application of the blower with closed fire doors. Such 
a spot results from incomplete distribution of live fire 
over the grates after the fire was cleaned, and putting 
green coal on places where there was not sufficient fire 
to ignite it. Such a defect in the fire must be cured 
before starting, or its evil results will be felt afterward 
in more work for the fireman and less steam for the 
engine. The green coal must be shoved or pulled away 
from the dead spot, and good, live fire put in place of 
the coal thus removed. It is best to then cover the 
place with the coal removed from it (now considerably 
heated) and, if necessary, apply the blower long 
enough to thoroughly ignite it. 

Preparing Fire for the Start. 

In preparing the fire for the start, after it has been 
cleaned, or from a “ bank,” great care must be taken 
to spread the remaining live coals so that they will 
thoroughly cover the entire grate surface, not only 
in the center but well up in the corners and along 
the sides, before any fresh coal is put on. It may be 


19 


necessary to use the blower at this stage of the work, 
to bring the newly spread coals up to a bright cherry- 
red heat — not a white heat — before adding any fresh 
coal. 

After the fire has been spread, and found to be or is 
put in good condition, it should be completely, but 
lightly, covered over with fresh coal. Judgment must 
be used as to whether an application of the blower is 
necessary to properly ignite this fresh coal. The blower 
must be used as little as is necessary. If there is 
switching to do, or if leaving time is distant, use of 
the blower may be avoided. 

The amount of coal necessary to build up the fire 
to the proper depth, to raise the steam pressure and to 
fill the boiler, must be put on the fire gradually — a 
few shovelfuls at a time, spread lightly and evenly 
over the surface; this to be given time to become thor¬ 
oughly ignited and get to burning well before another 
equally light and evenly spread charge of coal is 
added. Circumstances may require the use of the 
blower in this work; but if such use can be avoided 
without delay or fluctuating pressure a better fire will 
be produced with simply the natural draft acting on 
the fire with closed doors, stimulated by the air pump 
exhausts. Experience has shown that a fire built up 
with the blower has more clinker formation started in it 
than one built up by natural draft. 

It is of the greatest importance to have a good 
fire to start with. If the fire is not put in good shape 
before starting it will be found hard, if not impossible, 
to put it in good shape afterward. 

At leaving time it is necessary that there shall be a 
bed of fire covering the entire grate surface, about 


20 


three or four inches deep and level in the center, but 
from three to five inches deeper along the sides, in the 
corners, and at the back of the fire-box, as it is at these 
places that the draft acts the strongest. The exact depth 
of the fire at starting must conform to the weight of the 
train and the character of the road, therefore to the way 
the engine will be worked — hard or easily — in start¬ 
ing the train and forcing it into speed. Whatever coal 
is needed to keep up steam, and keep the fire in good 
condition during this hard task of work, must be placed 
on the fire and thoroughly ignited before starting. 

At starting, the fire should be burning brightly all 
over; and while the use of the blower is to be avoided 
as much as possible in preparing and building up the 
fire, yet the blower can often be used to good advantage 
a minute or so just before starting to create a hot, 
brightly burning fire for the start. 

During the start, and while the heavy full-stroke 
exhausts continue to act severely on the fire, the doors 
should be placed on the latch, with as wide an opening 
as the engine will steam freely with. These openings 
permit the entrance of enough air to the fire-box to con¬ 
siderably reduce the tearing effects of the strong draft 
on the fire. 


Firing While Running. 

In firing anthracite coal the greatest care is neces¬ 
sary to place fresh coal where and when it is needed. 
The fire must be closely watched, and feeding must be 
regulated by its requirements. With the burning coal 
the white heat is the highest heat : and it is also 
the beginning of decline. Small burning coals grow 
from the “ green ” to the “ ripe ” or white-hot state in 


21 


a very few minutes. An anthracite fire is ripe at a 
white heat — ripe for fresh coal to be put on. 

Anthracite coal was known to the early settlers of 
Pennsylvania for many years before it came to be re¬ 
garded as of any possible use as a fuel. When its value 
as such was first announced the people laughed at the 
idea of any one trying to burn “ those black rocks.” 
Attempts at burning it extended over a number of 
years, often ending in discouraging failures before 
finally its value as a fuel and the proper method of 
burning it began slowly to be understood. For many 
years it was commonly known as “ stone coal ”; and 
it was found difficult not only to start a fire with the 
coal, but also to replenish the fire so that it would not 
go out. The coal had to be heated red-hot before it 
would begin to burn. If the fire was permitted to burn 
low before fresh coal was put on, then it could not heat 
the fresh coal red-hot and thus ignite it, or make it 
burn. 

This old difficulty is still characteristic of the burn¬ 
ing of anthracite coal, and forces stricter attention in 
firing than is necessary in burning any other kind of 
coal. The fire must be watched for the development 
of white spots — places in the fire where the coal 
reaches the white heat. This being the moment of high¬ 
est temperature, it is also the moment for fresh coal 
to be added, to insure its rapid ignition and the main¬ 
tenance of a hot fire. If through lack of attention, the 
fire is permitted to burn past the white heat, and die 
to a red heat, the coal then put on may not catch fire 
promptly, or may even find insufficient heat in the cool¬ 
ing coals beneath it to set it on fire at all. Then that 
place in the fire will “ go out,” making extra work nec- 


22 


essary for the fireman to clean out the dead spot, and 
possibly crippling the engine through lack of sufficient 
steam until the evil is corrected, and the fire is again 
put into good condition. 

Wide Fire-boxes. 

The small sizes of coal are necessarily burned in 
fire-boxes having large grate areas. Two conditions 
make this necessary. First, a softer draft is required 
than in burning coarse coal, to prevent the small coal 
from being lifted from the fire and thrown out 
the stack; second, the only way the small coal can be 
successfully burned is by spreading it in thin layers 
over the surface of the fire. If dumped in heaps on the 
fire, or put on heavily, it forms a “ bank ” through 
which the air required for its burning can not pass. 
Any part of a fire “ banked ” in this way is “ put out 
of action ” so far as steam-making is concerned. 

Experience has taught that the smaller the size 
of coal, the larger must be the grate area on which it is 
burned, the thinner must be the bed of fire, and the 
softer must be the draft, for the reasons stated. With 
the very wide fire-boxes, the softer draft used is not 
less strong than the harder draft noticed on engines 
with smaller fire-boxes. The draft may be stronger 
in the wide fire-box, but being distributed or spread 
over a greater fire surface it acts more softly on every 
part of the fire; just as when a shovelful of fine coal 
is spread over a large portion of the fire, the layer thus 
added is thinner at every part than if spread over a 
smaller portion. 

As a modified draft is thus necessary for burning 
small coal, it follows that the bed of fire must be kept 


23 


as light and as free from ashes and clinkers as possi¬ 
ble, so that the air required for burning the coal 
may find easy passage through it. To keep the fire in 
this condition while running, it must be carried nearly 
level and fed as lightly as possible consistent with its 
needs and the way the engine is working. Each shovel¬ 
ful of coal put on the fire should be spread as largely 
over its surface as possible, and never placed thickly 
on any one part. With an engine working ordinarily 
on level grades, only one or two shovelfuls of coal 
should be used per “ fire,” and these should be thor¬ 
oughly scattered over the surface, or those portions of 
it that arrive at a white heat. 

When an engine is working hard on up grades the 
same method of feeding the fire must be adhered to; 
although during such work feeding may necessarily 
be more frequent, and the charges of coal per “ fire ” 
may possibly have to be made three, or even four shov¬ 
elfuls, with the largest fire-boxes. 

Charges of over three shovelfuls per “ fire ” 
while working ordinarily on level grades, or over four 
shovelfuls per “ fire ” on up grades, constitute un¬ 
necessarily heavy firing, and are forbidden. 

In feeding the fire while running the aim should be 
to keep it as level as possible, and to feed always and 
only on those portions of the fire that have reached 
a bright heat. Nothing is gained by covering with 
fresh coal those portions of the fire which are only 
red-hot, and which have not yet reached a white-heat. 
Until such portions become white hot they have not 
given off all or the highest heat they are capable of 
giving, and fresh coal should not be put on them 
until they do this. In other words, more coal should 


24 


never be used until we have gotten all the heat we can 
out of what we have already used. 

Some firemen carelessly (in the past) have thrown 
on the fire twelve and fifteen shovelfuls of coal at a 
time. This was practically putting a “ wet blanket ” on 
the fire, and its general and immediate effect was to 
reduce the steam pressure ten pounds or more. Too 
heavy firing results not only in always preventing 
rapid evaporation, but it is damaging to the boiler, and 
also damaging to the fire on the grates — hastening 
the formation of clinkers in the fire, that thereafter act 
to prevent the entrance of air, and thus deaden the 
fire — forcing upon the fireman the extra necessary 
labor to clean it, or to shovel a double quantity of coal 
to keep up steam. Too heavy firing also invariably 
results in the formation of “ banks ” in the fire, each 
of which becomes the father of a clinker. When 
such banks are formed, their best treatment is to let 
them alone until they burn up, or an opportunity occurs 
to fix the fire. Breaking them up, or raking them 
over, will largely increase the formation of clinker. 

Ordinarily, in feeding the fire, the doors should be 
closed between each shovelful of coal. Circumstances 
may alter this somewhat, as when an engine is about to 
“ pop,” and advantage is being taken of this to put in a 
fresh “fire.” Also when coal is being put in just 
before an engine is to be shut off, and it is desired to 
reduce the steam pressure slightly to prevent “ pop¬ 
ping.” But generally the fire should not be kept so 
hot that it will be desirable to cool it at such times 
with open fire-doors. 

If holes are pulled in the fire they should be leveled 
over with the poker or the hoe — never filled up with 


25 


fresh coal. When a dead spot develops in a fire it may 
not be necessary to clean the fire because of this. 
Probably the evil can be remedied by pulling the 
grate-bar nearest the spot, and knocking out the dead 
coals. Then cover the place with live fire and put on 
fresh coal. 

Making Station Stops. 

In making station stops a “ fire ” should be put in 
either just before or right after the throttle valve is 
closed. The purpose for this is twofold. Usually 
at such times the fire is so hot that a surplus of steam 
is made, even if the injector is continued at work. 
This gives a good chance to put a charge of coal on 
the fire sufficient to last and keep it in good shape dur¬ 
ing the coming start from the station. The fresh coal 
put on at this time absorbs the surplus heat being 
given off by the fire, becomes heated red-hot, ignited, 
and all ready for the start. Thus an even steam pressure 
is maintained and “ popping ” avoided while running 
into the station; and the fire being in perfect condi¬ 
tion for the start keeps up the steam pressure without 
further feeding while the engine is working hard 
starting the train. 

Whether the fire should be put in just before or 
right after the throttle valve is closed will depend 
upon whether the surplus generation of steam should 
be checked before shutting off, or afterward. If the 
engine is a free steamer, or the fire is very hot, the 
fresh coal should be put on before shutting off; but 
otherwise, unless necessary to prevent “ popping/’ the 
fresh coal should be put on right after shutting off. 
In either case the supply should be sufficient to last 


26 


during the next start, while the engine is working hard, 
and until it can be put to working at short cut-off. 
Whichever plan is followed, this should be held as a 
motto of good firing for station stops — Put in the 
needed fire always on shutting off and never on 

STARTING. 

Descending Grades. 

Special care is necessary in managing the fire while 
descending long hills with steam shut off. In approach¬ 
ing long down-grades the fire should be cooled off 
gradually by letting it burn down well, so “ popping ” 
will not occur when the throttle-valve is closed for 
the descent. As the injector will be continued at work 
to fill the boiler with water after the throttle-valve is 
closed, the fire should be left as bright as may be 
necessary to supply the heat required by the injector, 
and to keep up the steam pressure. It is very impor¬ 
tant for the preservation of the boiler from damage 
that there shall be no considerable fall of steam pres¬ 
sure while the injector is doing this work. If the fire 
in this bright condition makes more steam than the 
injector can use up, then its sides and back portion 
should be covered over with fresh coal, leaving the 
middle and forward portions of the fire bright. While 
the injector continues working, the fire-doors may be 
left open, or ajar, if the steam pressure does not fall; 
but they must be closed if there is any indication of 
falling pressure. 

After the injector is shut off, more of the fire may 
be covered over, including the center; but the first 
twelve or fifteen inches of the forward part of the fire, 
next to the tube-sheet, must not be covered over heavily, 


27 


but left bright in order to protect the flues from being 
chilled by currents of cold air. The fire-doors should 
stand wide open or on the latch, if necessary, to prevent 
“ popping.” If the engine has dampers, these should 
be closed with this end in view. 

If the engine is to descend a long grade, a good 
opportunity is offered to clean the fire, if this is neces¬ 
sary. If the fire is cleaned, the remaining live coals 
should be thoroughly spread over the grates, covered 
over .lightly with fresh coal, and the fire built up to the 
proper depth in exactly the same way as in preparing 
for the start. It should be in as thoroughly good con¬ 
dition at the foot of the hill, to begin the ascent of the 
next grade, as in making the first start at the com¬ 
mencement of the trip. 

Waiting on Sidings. 

In approaching a siding where a wait is expected 
the fire should be allowed to burn down well, especially 
on engines having wide fire-boxes. While waiting on 
sidings, practically the same management of the fire is 
necessary to keep it in good condition and avoid re¬ 
duced steam pressure or waste of steam, as in descend¬ 
ing long grades. If the wait is to be considerable, here „ 
also is a good chance to clean the fire or put it in good 
condition; and do whatever other work may help to 
make firing easier after the start. 

If the fire does not need cleaning, then after get¬ 
ting in on the siding it should be kept as bright as 
necessary to keep up the steam pressure while the 
injector is working. After the injector is shut off, the 
fire should then be covered over at the sides and the 
back, leaving the center and forward twelve or 


28 


eighteen inches next the tube-sheet bright, for the 
protection of the tubes. If the engine has dampers, 
these should be closed. Otherwise the fire-doors should 
be opened or placed on the latch. If the engine is 
inclined to “ pop ” with the fire in this condition, then 
the center should be covered over also; but it is abso¬ 
lutely necessary that the tube-sheet shall be protected 
by bright fire near it, and that there shall be no great 
fall of steam pressure. 

Careful efforts should be made during waits in 
whatever way is best to prevent a draft through the fire 
that will cause the coal used for a covering to burn up 
and be wasted. 

The fire should not be covered over until the boiler 
is well filled with water and the injector is shut off. 
Should it become necessary during the wait to put more 
water in the boiler, then the fire-doors must be closed 
and a draft through the fire created to keep up the 
steam pressure while the injector is working. 

Always in approaching a descending grade, a side 
track where there is to be a wait, and the terminal sta¬ 
tion of the run, the fire should be allowed to burn down 
well, without decreasing steam pressure, so that not 
much good fuel will be left on the fire to> be wasted 
through the “ pop,” or when the fire is cleaned. 


29 


CHAPTER IV. 

Firing Coarse Anthracite Coal. 

The coarse sizes of anthracite coal form a supe¬ 
rior and higher-priced fuel than the* small sizes. 
They are burned on engines having usually deeper and 
much smaller fire-boxes. As much care must be exer¬ 
cised in preparing the fire for the start with coarse coal 
as with small coal. A heavier fire is carried with coarse 
coal, and for this reason the fireman must be partic¬ 
ularly careful to see that the bed of coals upon which 
he is to build his fire is in perfect condition — that it 
is free from clinkers, dead spots, and that it thoroughly 
covers the whole grate surface, especially close up 
against the tube-sheet. The success of the fire will 
depend largely upon the care taken with it at this time. 
If a dead spot should be overlooked while the fire is 
being built up, the engine will not steam well that 
trip; nor may the trouble be easily located. 

After the fire has been properly spread, and found 
to be in perfect condition, it must be immediately and 
lightly covered over with coal broken up to about the 
size of “ grate coal.” The fire-door should then be 
closed and the blower lightly used — if necessary — 
until the fresh coal is thoroughly ignited and is burning 
well. A heavier covering of broken coal should then 
be put on, and allowed to get to burning well; then 
coarse coal should be put on to build the fire up to the 
necessary depth to suit the work the engine has to do 
after starting, building the corners, sides and back 
portions heavier than the middle and forward parts. 


30 


No lumps larger than “ steamboat ” coal should be 
put on the fire at any time. Lumps larger than this 
must be broken. After the necessary charge of coarse 
coal has been put on, the spaces between the lumps 
must be filled in with finely broken coal, especially 
along the sides and in the corners, to prevent holes 
being worked in the fire. 

Proper Depth of Fire. 

A proper depth of fire for coarse coal at starting 
can not be stated. It must depend on the size of the 
coal, the size of the fire-box, and the work to be done. 
It should never exceed six to eight inches deep in the 
front, or eight to twelve inches deep at the back. The 
aim must be to keep the bed of fire as light as possible 
without running any risk of having holes drawn in it; 
but it should be deep enough so that it will not require 
further feeding while the engine is working hard 
starting the train, or until the fire gets to burning well 
and making steam freely. Much coal has in the past 
been wasted by building fires too heavy before start¬ 
ing. 

What is known as “ loading up ” before starting, 
so a long distance can be run before “ loading up ” 
again, is a bad and wasteful practice that must be dis¬ 
continued. With such firing, the heavy bed of coal 
obstructs the easy passage of air through the fire, thus 
reducing the amount of air admitted below what is 
needed for perfect combustion. The result is imper¬ 
fect combustion of a very large portion of the coal 
put on the fire and burned, from which only a third 
as much heat is obtained as would be if it had suffi¬ 
cient air to burn properly. 


31 


Too heavy firing either before the start, or during 
the run, increases the formation of clinkers; and 
therefore reduces the length of time a fire can be used 
without being cleaned. Now cleaning the fire on the 
road is the hardest, hottest job in a fireman’s work. 
Much good coal also is always lost in the process of 
cleaning a fire, being sometimes carelessly, and some¬ 
times unavoidably knocked out along with the clinkers. 
It always takes a good many shovelfuls of fresh coal 
to rebuild a cleaned fire up to the proper condition 
for keeping up steam. 

While it is necessary that a fire fouled with clink¬ 
ers shall be cleaned at the first opportunity, yet as the 
process is laborious for the fireman and wasteful for 
the Company, it should be avoided as much as possible 
by light and careful firing — the best preventative for 
clinkers. 

In burning anthracite coal the depth of the fire car¬ 
ried is dependent upon the size of the lumps used. With 
large lumps a thick fire is required, and even then there 
is a constant tendency toward the formation of air 
passages, or “ holes,” between the large lumps. While 
large lumps of anthracite coal under a forced draft 
soon disintegrate or “ go to pieces,” yet the particles 
usually stick so closely together that they can not be 
burned with as much advantage as small lumps distrib¬ 
uted more evenly over the fire. 

Therefore to obtain the advantages that come from ' 
a light fire long kept clean, and the more perfect burn¬ 
ing of the coal, all large lumps should be broken to at 
least “ steamboat ” size before being put on the fire. 
Thus will the life of the fire in good condition be pro¬ 
longed, the combustion of all the coal burned on it be 


32 


improved, resulting in more heat and steam from any 
given quantity of coal, and reduced labor for the 
fireman. 

A fire made too heavy before starting has a ten¬ 
dency to die out before burning completely, or settling 
down. This brings about a condition of fire known as 
“ rotten ”•— spoiled before use. The necessary rem¬ 
edy is to clean the fire; but the “ rotten ” condition 
and the hot labor to follow can be avoided by keeping 
the fire as light as consistent before leaving. 

After starting, the fire must be closely watched. 
About the same depth of fire as was had in starting 
should be maintained by adding one or two shovelfuls 
of broken coal as needed to the parts of the fire that 
reach a white heat. Thus the parts inclined to burn 
to a lower depth will be kept filled up, the sides higher 
than the middle. Not over two or three shovelfuls 
at a time should be used in doing this while the engine 
is working ordinarily. A shovelful of coarse coal 
contains more than a shovelful of small coal. It can 
not be distributed so well as small coal. But the 
charges per “ fire ” while the engine is working must 
be kept as light with coarse as with small coal. 

Eternal vigilance is the price of safety ” in 
firing all sizes of anthracite coal; and as great care 
must be exercised with coarse as with small coal to 
keep the fire light and in good condition, to feed it 
with light, carefully placed charges while running, 
closing the door ordinarily between each shovelful, 
and giving time between each charge for the fire to 
regain high temperature. 

Within proper limitations, the lighter a fireman 
can keep his fire, the less coal he will have to shovel, 


33 


the less work he will have to clean his fire, the more 
steam he will have, and the more gain he will effect 
for the Company. 

While it is the mark of a good engineer to be 
always just on time with his train, it is the mark of a 
good fireman to be always a little ahead of time in his 
work; always preparing ahead for coming conditions, 
thus keeping himself their master, instead of being 
their slave. This is true in firing all kinds and sizes 
of coal, but it is a matter of first importance in firing 
coarse anthracite. Feeding coarse coal to a fire has 
a more chilling effect than feeding small coal, because 
it takes longer to> heat the coarse coal red-hot and 
start it to burning. Therefore the blacksmith’s maxim 
to — 

“Strike While the Iron is Hot" 

is of particular significance in firing coarse anthracite. 
The fireman must be more alert than even with small 
anthracite to “ strike ’’ while the coal is hot—to watch 
for the moments when the different portions of his fire 
reach their highest heat, the white heat; then quickly 
but carefully cover these places with coal. Firing 
postponed until the white heat dies out, or the steam 
pressure begins to fall, is sure to cause a heavy loss of 
pressure, and necessarily increased consumption of 
fuel. 

Making Station Stops. 

In making station stops, the needed coal for the next 
start must be put on the fire just before the throttle- 
valve is closed, or immediately after, for the same 
reasons as explained regarding small anthracite. The 


34 


fire should be in perfect condition at the start, and this 
requires that whatever coal it needs shall be on it, and 
thoroughly ignited, before the start. 

Always in starting, and generally while running, 
the door should be left open on the latch as much as is 
found advantageous. In starting this relieves the fire 
largely from the pulling, tearing effects of the exhausts. 

Descending Grades and Waiting on Sidings. 

In approaching a long descending grade, or a sid¬ 
ing where a wait is expected, the fire should be per¬ 
mitted to burn as low as possible, without permitting 
the steam pressure to fall. After the throttle is closed 
for descending a grade, the fire should be managed 
in the same way as with small coal. The same oppor¬ 
tunity exists for cleaning it, if this be necessary. It is 
equally important that steam shall not be wasted by 
blowing away through the safety-valve; and it is also 
absolutely necessary that there shall be no considerable 
fall of steam pressure to chill and damage the boiler. 

In waiting on sidings the fire should be managed 
in the same way as with small coal to avoid either 
loss of steam through “ popping,” or chilling of the 
boiler through reduced steam pressure. 

In approaching terminal stations it is of even more 
importance to let the fire burn down well with coarse 
than with small coal, because there will usually be a 
deeper bed of fire with the coarse coal to be wasted 
unless this is done. 


35 


CHAPTER V. 

Advantages of Breaking Coal. 

Next in importance to keeping a light fire is the 
breaking up of all large lumps of coal into small pieces, 
in order to get rapid and complete combustion. During 
combustion the intensity of heat depends upon the 
rapidity of burning, which in turn depends largely 
upon the surface of the coal exposed to the attacking 
atoms of air. By breaking a large lump of coal into 
small pieces, its exposed surface is largely increased, 
which will greatly assist rapid burning and generation 
of intense heat. Ordinarily, anthracite coal for firing 
locomotives should be broken to “ steamboat ” size; 
and bituminous coal should be broken to as near the 
size of an ordinary apple as possible. 

Some firemen regard this as extra work, and neg¬ 
lect it, or perform -it unwillingly. This is a mistake. 
It is not extra work, but well-directed work that will 
render full compensation in the reduction of otherwise 
necessary work. By doing all that is necessary to 
secure as perfect combustion as possible, much less coal 
will be required for the fire, and the fireman will be 
spared the labor of placing it on the fire, besides know¬ 
ing that he has performed careful, economical work, 
which, if continued, will surely attract the favorable 
attention of those having power to promote him in 
position, and better his condition in life. 

For the same reason that the coal should be broken 
into small pieces it should be scattered evenly over 


36 


the surface of the fire when placed thereon; thus it will 
be most quickly heated and burned, and give off the 
most intense heat. 

Harmonious Co-operation. 

Probably few firemen realize how much their work 
can be lightened when they and their engineers work 
together to economize fuel in every reasonable way. 
The difference between their doing so and not doing so 
can easily affect the coal consumption of the engine 
they run to the extent of a ton or a ton and a half per 
day. If the more careless men would figure on the 
matter a little, they would see that this means an unnec¬ 
essary consumption, for their engine, of about thirty 
or forty tons of coal a month, or the quite useless hand¬ 
ling of as much coal as would usually supply the 
engine for five or six extra trips over the road. 

Many firemen impose upon themselves as much 
extra and entirely unnecessary work as this, either 
through ignorance of the best methods, or through 
carelessness, or because they and their engineers do 
not work together harmoniously. 

Absence of harmony between the crew of an 
engine insures not only reduced pleasure in their work, 
but also increased labor and anxiety for them, and loss 
for the Company. For both safety and economy 
engineers should always keep their firemen advised 
regarding all known coming events and unusual stops 
of each trip, so that firemen can anticipate these in the 
regulation of the fire to save coal. Firemen should 
keep such advice in mind, and act upon it with care and 
good judgment. 

Engineers and firemen should cooperate carefully 


37 


in seeing that tenders are not overloaded with coal at 
chutes; and that all coal taken on the tender is safe¬ 
guarded from being lost overboard while running. The 
tops of tenders should always be kept in neat condition, 
regarding the supply of coal carried. The coal should 
be kept within the limits provided for it; and not 
allowed to accumulate around the water-hole. 

Bituminous coal deteriorates or loses value rapidly 
when exposed to the air and weather. Therefore nei¬ 
ther engineers nor firemen should permit long-stand¬ 
ing accumulations of coal on any part of the tender. 
These should be frequently shoveled ahead, used up 
and replaced by fresh fuel which, if needed in an 
emergency, will be in good condition to make steam. 

Shaking the Grates. 

On engines having shaking grates it is important 
for the preservation of the grates from being burned 
that they shall always rest perfectly level. Otherwise 
some of the fingers will project into the fire and be 
burned off. This is of special importance with anthra¬ 
cite coal. Great care must be taken to place the grates 
level after each time they are shaken; otherwise lumps 
of clinker may get wedged between the fingers of adja¬ 
cent grates and. allow red-hot coals to fall into the ash- 
pan, where they may burn the grates out bodily. Any 
arrangement provided for locking the grates in a level 
position must always be faithfully used by firemen 
every time they move the grates. 

The grates should usually be shaken occasionally 
and lightly so as to keep a thick bed of ashes or clinkers 
from forming over them; that would exclude the air 
from the fire. 


38 


We speak of the coal as being the “ fuel ” of the 
fire, but it must be remembered that the air is quite as 
MUCH THE FUEL OF THE FIRE AS THE COAL. During 
combustion both burn; and one is as necessary to 

THE FIRE AS THE OTHER. 

Care should be taken while shaking the grates 
to remove only the dead ashes and cinders from the; 
bottom of the fire, and avoid shaking any more live fire 
into the ash-pan than can be helped. This is very 
important with anthracite coal, as the danger of burn¬ 
ing the grates is greater with this coal than with bitu¬ 
minous. It is particularly important on engines 
having wide fire-boxes extending over the drivers. 
With these engines, live fire shaken into the ash-pan 
may cripple the engine, either by burning the grates or 
causing a hot driving-box. 

The best time to shake the grates is when steam 
is shut off, or when the draft through the fire is light¬ 
est. Some firemen select such times as when the ex¬ 
haust is strongest to give their grates a vigorous 
shaking, with the result that a cloud of smoke (with 
bituminous) and a hailstorm of small pieces of uncon¬ 
sumed coal in the form of cinders is belched from the 
stack. This is wasteful, and is not the object sought. 
What is wanted is simply to shake the ashes away 
from the grates and into the ash-pan so as to give a 
free passage for the air to the fire. This can be accom¬ 
plished with less injury to the fire, less danger of 
making holes in it, getting less fire in the ash-pan, and 
with less waste of coal, by shaking the grates when 
steam is shut off, or when the draft through the fire is 
light. > 


39 


Clinkers. 

Clinkers are the arch enemies of perfect com¬ 
bustion and economy, and they are formed by the accu¬ 
mulated ashes on the grates melting together. To 
prevent the formation of clinkers, with coal containing 
much slate, rock and other impurities, frequent but 
easy shaking of the grates is necessary. 

When clinkers form over the grates to an extent 
that the easy steaming of the engine is affected thereby, 
the earliest opportunity must be improved to either 
hook or knock them out. This work must never be 
attempted when the engine is working, because of the 
injury that would then be done to the boiler, especially 
the tubes and tube-sheet, by the inrushing cold air. 
Special care must also be exercised in doing this 
work to make sure that no hot clinkers are discharged 
from the engine in any way where— by any possibil¬ 
ity —they may strike any person, or fall upon or near 
any bridge or culvert. Neither must fires or ash-pans 
be cleaned near any bridge or culvert, or depot or 
building. Fire, even if smouldering, is always dan¬ 
gerous if left lying near such places, as it may be car¬ 
ried by some low-hanging part of a passing engine 
or car to the spot where it can start a fire that might 
prove fearfully destructive of both life and property. 

When it is necessary to remove clinkers from the 
fire, but there is no time or opportunity to entirely 
remove them, they may be pulled to the back of the 
fire-box and banked there until an opportunity occurs 
to hook them out. In this position they will be the least 
harmful in excluding air from the bed of fire, and they 
can be most quickly gotten rid of when the chance 


comes. 


40 


Work of this kind should always be done from the 
top, and never from the bottom of the fire. The hook, 
or the slash-bar, should not be run beneath the clinkers, 
or between them and the grates, to separate them from 
the same. Often when this is done some of the half- 
melted portions of clinkers are forced into> the air 
spaces between the grates and completely obstruct 
these. Clinkers should either be knocked out through 
the openings provided for that purpose, or lifted bodily 
out of the fire. 

The Waste of Popping. 

It should be a fireman’s constant aim to keep an 
even steam pressure while running, close to the pres¬ 
sure usually desired. Changes of pressure affect the 
proper working of the engine, and are very destructive 
in their influence on the boiler. While a good pressure 
of steam should be kept up, no surplus steam should be 
made to uselessly blow away through the safety-valve. 

It has been found that the waste of steam usually 
when an engine “ pops,” or blows off surplus steam, 
equals every second all the heat ordinarily obtained 
from the burning of a quarter of a pound of coal. 
The size of a lump of coal weighing a quarter of a 
pound is shown by the accompanying illustration. Let 
us imagine a lump of coal of this size flying out of the 
safety-valve every second the “ pop ” goes off and we 
will have a fair idea of the waste of coal resulting. 

Safety-valves usually remain open about half a 
minute, when they are raised by surplus pressure, 
resulting in the loss of about eight pounds of coal — 
half a shovelful, or at the rate of a shovelful per min¬ 
ute. There are only about 125 ordinary scoopfuls in 


41 



a ton of coal. Plainly, then, an engine crew that will 
permit their engine to “ pop ” sixty odd times during a 
day or a trip actually throw away a quarter of a ton 
of coal through the safety valve. 

Correct judgment will regulate the feeding of the 
fire to keep up an even steam pressure without making 
surplus steam to be blown away through the safety- 
valve, or surplus heat to be counteracted by opening 


A QUARTER OF A POUND OF COAL, ACTUAL SIZE. 
Amount of coal wasted during each second of time an engine is “ popping.” 

the fire-door to admit a great quantity of cold air to the 
fire-box. The open door, or the howling “ pop,” simply 
tell of the carelessness or bad judgment of the fireman. 
Either when putting in the fire that made the surplus 
steam he was careless and gave no heed to his work, or 
in measuring the quantity of coal he thought his fire 
needed he put in too much. The result in either case 
is a waste of fuel. 


42 


However, the best judgment and the most careful 
efforts will sometimes falter; so when too much coal 
has been put upon the fire, rather than open the fire- 
door and admit cold air to counteract the undesired 
heat which the burning coal is producing, it is more 
economical and less injurious to the boiler to close the 
dampers (if provided), whether the engine is “ work¬ 
ing steam ” or not, and thus suspend combustion 
until greater heat is needed. Understanding how nec¬ 
essary air is to combustion, we know why the burning 
of our fire is checked by closing the dampers. The 
supply of air, the other part of the fuel, is thus cut off, 
and combustion is suspended. 

When it becomes necessary to open the fire-door to 
prevent the steam from blowing off, or to cause it to 
cease doing so, the door should never, while the engine 
is using steam, be pulled wide open and left so until 
the boiler cools. The inrush of cold air causes rapid 
cooling and contraction of the fire-box, and is especially 
hard upon the tubes and tube-sheet. The door held just 
ajar, or swung to and fro, secures the best results gen¬ 
erally. It is not an evidence of good firing, however, 
to even do this very often, especially with a fireman 
familiar with his duty and an engine. 

Use and Misuse of Blower. 

In raising steam the blower should not be used 
unless it is necessary in order to obtain the desired pres¬ 
sure within a short time. Even then it should be used 
as lightly as the time will allow; otherwise it will 
cause waste of fuel and possible damage to the boiler. 
The full time allowed should always be used to grad- 


43 


ually raise the steam pressure, either at terminals or 
on the road. 

The slower the “ rate of combustion ” the more 
heat we get from the coal into the water in the boiler. 
Therefore it is wasteful to make the fire burn any faster 
than necessary. 

Another and more important reason for always 
increasing the steam pressure gradually is because 
with increasing steam pressure there is always an 
increase of temperature of both the boiler and its 
contents. In increasing the steam pressure from 50 
pounds to 100 pounds the temperature of the boiler is 
increased 40 degrees, or nearly one degree per pound; 
likewise an increase from, 100 pounds to 150 pounds 
pressure increases the temperature 28 degrees, or nearly 
three degrees for each five pounds. The boiler ex¬ 
pands when heated; and when the steam pressure 
is raised rapidly the rapid rise of temperature causes 
sudden expansion of the boiler that is damaging to its 
plates and stay-bolts — often cracking the plates and 
breaking the bolts. 

Naturally, if the steam pressure is permitted to 
fall, there is a fall of temperature, or cooling of the 
boiler and contraction of its parts. These movements 
of expansion and contraction, or stretching and shrink¬ 
ing, following changing steam pressure, are very 
destructive in their influence on locomotive boilers, and 
teach the importance of always keeping the pressure 
as steady as possible; and of guarding against rapid 
changes of pressure either way. 

The blower gets in its deadliest work on boilers, 
however, while being used to assist in working at the 
fire, either in feeding it when at a low heat, or raking it 


44 


over or cleaning it. In all these operations the sole use 
of the blower is to create sufficient draft to keep the fire 
gases from coming out of the doorway into the fire¬ 
man’s face. 

A very light application is' enough for this pur¬ 
pose; but very often the blower is put on its full 
force — causing a draft so strong that an immense 
volume of cold air is drawn into the fire-box, either 
through the doorway or through half bare grates, and 
is hurled against the tube-sheet and tubes, the surfaces 
of which are about three hundred degrees hotter 
than the blast of chilling air they have to withstand. 
Many weeping tube-sheets bear witness to the abuse 
they suffer from the misuse of the blower. 


45 


CHAPTER VI. 

Firing Bituminous Coal. 

We have seen that bituminous or “ soft ” coal dif¬ 
fers from anthracite coal in being largely composed 
of gaseous matter (Chapter II). Generally over one- 
third and sometimes over one-half of bituminous coal 
turns into gas in the fire-box, and is burned as flame, 
or else escapes unburned as smoke. The gaseous mat¬ 
ter is the first to burn after the coal is placed on the 
fire. As soon as the coal becomes heated its gases are 
expelled, and if sufficient air is present and the tem¬ 
perature of bright red-hot iron —1,800 degrees — 
exists in the furnace, they are burned. In this way 
the gaseous portion of the coal is expelled and con¬ 
sumed first, leaving most of the carbon yet upon the 
grates as red-hot or white-hot burning coals. 

As the gaseous matter in bituminous coal consti¬ 
tutes the only difference between it and anthracite coal, 
it also constitutes the only reason for different treat¬ 
ment made necessary in burning, or firing, these coals. 
Bituminous coal is softer and more easily broken, and 
catches fire and burns more quickly than anthracite. 
But both anthracite and bituminous coal require prac¬ 
tically the same amount of air in burning. Therefore 
all that has been said about the necessity of keeping 
a light fire with anthracite applies equally to bitumi¬ 
nous coal. 


46 


Perfect Firing. 

Perfect firing with bituminous coal, is to feed 
the fire with but one shovelful at a time, placed alter¬ 
nately on the different portions of the fire, as needed. 
When this is rightly done, the small amount of coal 
put on the fire each time gives off a volume of gas that 
has a good chance to meet enough air in the fire-box 
and be properly burned — before more coal is added 
and more gas is made. Only a limited amount of gas 
can be burned in the fire-box at a time;, and if so 
much coal is put on the fire that more than this amount 
of gas is given off, then all the gas in excess of that 
which can burn escapes from the stack as smoke — 
uselessly wasted. Therefore the charge of coal per 
“ fire ” should always be as light as possible — of but 
one or two shovelfuls, and properly of but one shovel¬ 
ful. 

This method requires almost constant attention, 
especially when the engine is working hard, and allows 
but little time for the enjoyment of the seat-box. There 
is then ample time, however, for breaking the coal, and 
leisurely placing it properly on the fire. Less coal is 
then burned (handled), less smoke is produced, and a 
steady steam pressure is more easily kept up than when 
the fire is fed with large charges. The lessened coal 
consumption saves money for the Company, less smoke 
makes the journey of the passengers or the work of the 
trainmen more pleasant, a more steady steam pressure 
avoids expansion and contraction of the boiler, and 
this means greater safety and reduced expense for 
boiler repairs. 

It is doubtful also if climbing upon the seat-box 


47 


for a short sitting- between each “ fire ” is really as rest¬ 
ful as some firemen imagine. Evidently a man does a 
great deal of extra work when, in climbing up and 
down off the seat-box, he lifts and lowers his body two 
or three feet — two or three hundred times a day. 

Evil Results of Heavy Firing. 

The disadvantages of too heavy firing are numer¬ 
ous and important, and they react disastrously on the 
engine, the fireman, and the net earnings of the rail¬ 
road company so unfortunate as to have careless fire¬ 
men in its service. 

Heavy charges of coal cool the fire and reduce the 
steam pressure several pounds, and sometimes, with 
very careless firemen, many pounds. This reduction 
of pressure lowers the temperature of the boiler, caus¬ 
ing contraction of its parts. When the fire gets to 
burning fiercely, the steam pressure and the tempera¬ 
ture of the boiler are suddenly increased, causing 
expansion of its parts. This means an expenditure of 
money to repair the resulting damage; but it also 
means much woe for the fireman generally, before 
the repairs can be made; because a leaky boiler will 
cause its fireman more grief, labor and anxiety than 
any one else in railway service. Generally it is hard 
to “ keep hot.” 

In firing bituminous coal heavy charges are very 
wasteful. The large amount of gas in the coal requires 
special treatment to make it burn properly. It partic¬ 
ularly requires a large amount of air and time for 
burning before it enters the tubes. Flame can exist but 
for a very short distance while passing through small 
tubes in a boiler, as the comparatively much colder 


48 


water surrounding the tubes absorbs so much heat from 
the flame that it is reduced below the temperature at 
which it can exist, and is thus “ put out.” 

A light charge of coal will give off an amount of 
gas that may immediately meet enough of air in the 
fire-box and be burned. 

A heavy charge of coal will give off so much gas 
that this can not meet enough of air to burn in the fire¬ 
box, during the very short time that it can stay there, 
and so escapes from the stack as smoke, which is 
unconsumed gas. In this case the gas, instead of 
being utilized as valuable fuel, as it really is, is 
turned into a robber, because it took a good deal of 
heat to expel it from the coal, and when it is permitted 
to escape unburned we lose not only the prospective 
heat we should get from burning it, but actually the 
heat it took from our fire in becoming gas. 

Rapid firing is wrong, for the same reason that 
heavy firing is wrong. A much easier and more eco¬ 
nomical way is to commence in time, and put the “ fire ” 
in leisurely, allowing the door to remain closed a few 
moments between each shovelful, where possible, for 
the fresh coal to get to burning, and for the furnace 
to regain its temperature. 

Even when the fire needs a charge of several shov¬ 
elfuls of coal, each shovelful should not be rapidly 
followed by another, except in extreme cases — as 
when a fire is being “ pulled.” . 

“ Pulling ” the Fire. 

One of the worst accidents that can happen to a 
fire is for it to be “ pulled ” by the heavy exhausts at 
starting. If the fire is allowed to burn low during a 


49 


long wait, and the engine is started and worked hard 
before the fire is properly prepared, the heavy full- 
stroke exhausts cause strong blasts of air to rush 
through the shallow bed of fire, dislodging the live 
coals from their resting-places and turning many of 
them over, hot side up. They are then in position to be 
quenched or blown out by the next few blasts of air 
from beneath. Sometimes a large part of the fire is 
so turned over or quenched, crippling the engine until 
the fire can be rebuilt, or totally disabling the engine 
until it can be rekindled. 

Such a mishap is apt to cause a serious train delay, 
and neither the engineer nor fireman can be excused 
for the combined carelessness that caused it. The fire 
must not be allowed to burn so low that its life may 
be endangered; and, in starting, engineers must know 
enough about the condition of the fire to avoid pull¬ 
ing it. 

Prevention is the only proper remedy for this 
accident; but when it occurs prompt and energetic 
action is necessary. The fireman must first notify 
the engineer, so that steam may be eased off. If it is 
necessary to continue using steam, the dampers must 
be quickly closed and the fire-door placed on the latch. 
A quantity of coal that will help to hold and build up 
the fire, but not smother it, must then be quickly put 
on. The door may then be placed on the latch again 
and -the blower used to build up the fire; but the damp¬ 
ers must be kept shut while the exhausts are heavy, or 
until the fire gets to burning well again, in order to pre¬ 
vent the quenching effect of the blasts of air passing 
through the fire. 

The object of this plan of action is to shut off the 


50 


damaging admission of air through the fire from 
beneath, and permit a restricted supply to be drawn 
in above the fire to reduce the tearing effects of the 
exhausts. 

A Run Over the Road.—Soft Coal. 

Our engine having been properly prepared for the 
run according to the Instructions in Chapter I, the train 
being ready and the time “ up,” it is necessary that a 
reasonably good bed of fire, burning well, covers the 
entire grate surface. We must leave to the fireman’s 
judgment the quantity of coal that must be placed on 
the fire just before leaving; but these requirements are 
important: The steam pressure at starting should be 
usually within five or ten pounds of the “ popping ” 
point, and the water-level in the boiler should be as 
high as it properly may be. The fire must be prepared 
with these conditions in mind. If either the steam pres¬ 
sure or water-level is lower than as stated, then more 
coal will be needed on the fire; but if the conditions are 
as stated then only enough fresh coal will be needed to 
“ hold ” the fire and prevent the strong draft caused 
by the escaping heavy exhausts from “ pulling ” it. 

The draft caused by the exhausts will continue 
heavy while the engine is working at full stroke start¬ 
ing the train, and the fire must have body enough to 
successfully resist the pulling effects of the strong 
draft. No heavier charge of coal than is necessary to 
provide for this should be put on the fire before start¬ 
ing, as any more will cause a surplus of steam to form, 
that in blowing from the safety-valve will howl about 
the poor judgment of the fireman. 

Much of fuel economy and the labor of firemen 


51 


depend upon starting out properly, with bituminous 
coal as well as with anthracite, and careful attention 
can be profitably given to the work in this emergency. 

Evils of Open Fire-door. 

When the engine starts the fire-box door should be 
placed on the latch before the first exhaust escapes 
from the cylinders, so as to avoid the chilling effect on 
the boiler that would be caused by the inrush of cold 
air through the wide-open doorway, drawn in by the 
escaping exhausts. This is very important for fuel 
economy and to avoid damage to the boiler. 

Not only in starting out should this important mat¬ 
ter of having the door closed before the engine starts 
receive careful attention, but during the run over the 
road it should be the fireman’s careful practice to 
always have his “ fire ” in and the door closed before 
starting up from stops. 

Some firemen pursue the opposite course, and no 
matter what the condition of their fire is, wait until the 
engine begins to start the train before they make a 
move toward putting in a fire. The first exhaust is the 
signal they wait for; when it goes resounding up the 
stack the fire-box door is pulled open, and blast after 
blast of cold air, following the escaping exhausts, sweep 
through the open doorway, through the low tempera¬ 
ture of the fire-box, and spend their force and cooling 
effect upon the tube-sheet and tubes. In such cases 
the usual result is a toss of ten or more pounds of steam 
pressure, to be made up by shoveling more coal. 

Supposing the train has gotten well in motion and 
steam of short cut-off is being used, making a light 
draft on the fire, it will depend upon conditions how 


52 


soon and how much more coal will be needed on the 
fire. Here again judgment must be exercised, but 
there are general conditions that must govern judg¬ 
ment. A fireman must consider at such times the char¬ 
acter of the road in front of the train — up hill, level or 
down grade, and regulate his firing accordingly. He 
must also consider the height of the water-level in the 
boiler and how soon and how strong the injector will 
be operated. Many firemen pay too little attention to 
the operation of the injector, while in fact this is of as 
much importance in regulating good firing with bitu¬ 
minous coal as the character of the road or the weight 
and speed of the train. 

Boiler-feeding and Firing. 

Careful boiler-feeding is of such vital importance 
to the safety and proper operation of locomotives that 
engineers are always charged with this duty. The 
engineer’s methods and habits of operating the in¬ 
jector must be observed by the fireman, and he must be 
guided by them in the regulation of his fire. If it is 
the practice to suspend the injection of feed-water 
during periods of hard work, as in starting trains — 
then lighter charges of coal are necessary to start out 
with. If it is the practice to leave the injection sus¬ 
pended during the first mile’s run from a station — 
the fireman should remember this, and not force the 
starting of the injector sooner by making his fire too 
hot. Firemen who do this work against their own 
interests and waste a great deal of coal. 

But it is important, when the injector is started 
after being suspended some time while running, that its 


53 


call for more heat should be met by a good “ fire ” put 
in previously. Knowing that the injector is to be 
started, the good fireman will put in his “ fire ” in time 
to have it burning well before the injector is started. 

Anticipate Changing Conditions. 

With bituminous coal especially a careful and 
thoughtful fireman will, before putting in each “ fire/’ 
anticipate or think ahead of the work the engine is 
going to do while that “ fire ” is burning, and he will 
regulate the amount of coal he puts upon the fire 
accordingly. 

This becomes his habit, and he finds himself always 
measuring the coal to his fire to conform to its needs, 
with an eye that looks beyond its present conditions, 
of heat and draft, to what will be those conditions 
before the “ fire ” he is putting in will have given up 
its heat; and he regulates the amount of coal to secure 
the best results, and prevent loss. 

Usually with bituminous coal, a “fire” should not be 
put in very shortly before steam is to be shut off, nor 
yet should the fire be allowed to burn so low that the 
steam pressure will be reduced because steam is to be 
shut off. Firemen should aim at a happy medium 
between these extremes, and try to have the fire in 
such condition when steam is shut off that there will be 
neither a surplus of steam generated nor an objection¬ 
able amount of smoke produced. 

While with hard coal it is necessary to put in a 
“fire” at, or just before shutting off for station 
stops, with soft coal it is generally best to wait and 
put the needed “ fire ” in just before starting. 


54 


Smoke Prevention. 

Air admitted above the fire is very effective in pre¬ 
venting smoke. Therefore the hollow stay-bolts some¬ 
times used in the sides of fire-boxes, and other 
arrangements for admitting fresh air above the fire. 
Therefore, also, the disappearance of smoke from the 
stack when the door is opened and a current of fresh 
air is drawn into the fire-box above the fire by the 
blower, or the exhausts. 

For cleanly as well as economical reasons engines 
should not be permitted to emit smoke while about sta¬ 
tions and depots, and should be prevented from doing 
so by closing the dampers or opening the fire-door and 
using the blower slightly; or, if the engine is working, 
by light and careful firing — whichever plan best suits 
the circumstances. 

Special care should be exercised in preparing the 
fire to start from large depots, where smoke is most 
objectionable, to do so without emitting smoke. If the 
fire is at a low heat it can be best built up by easy stages 
— by scattering one or two shovelfuls of finely broken 
coal over the surface, then, with the fire-door ajar and 
the blower on a little if necessary, give time for the 
gas in this coal to escape and burn before any more 
coal is put on. 

Also before entering the limits of large depots the 
fire should be prepared to prevent smoke, or greatly 
reduced steam pressure, while within the depot limits. 
This may be done by putting the last charge of coal on 
the fire in time so that it will be burned down enough 
to make no smoke on reaching the depot. 

If much smoke is made on the road when steam is 


55 


shut off, it should be immediately cleared away by open¬ 
ing the fire-door and putting the blower on as much as 
necessary. Smoke trailing back from the engine on 
either freight or passenger trains is very objectionable 
and should not be permitted. On freight trains it 
obscures the vision of the trainmen, and on passenger 
trains it enters the coaches through the ventilators and 
open windows. Smoke from a working locomotive is 
not so objectionable in these ways because the force of 
the exhaust throws it above the train. 

Drumming. 

Frequently with a light clean fire, when an engine 
is standing and the blower is slightly on, a drumming 
noise is made. It also occurs sometimes when the 
engine is running and the fire-door is opened. It is 
caused by the gas expelled from the coal combining in 
certain proportions with the air, forming an explosive 
compound. 

The explosions occur in rapid succession, and cause 
the drumming noise, which is unpleasant for most peo¬ 
ple to hear. For this reason it should be prevented on 
passenger engines (and on freight engines while near 
passenger trains), by closing one or both dampers, or 
opening the fire-door sufficiently, whichever is most 
effectual. 


56 


RULES FOR FIRING. 

The Instructions on Economical Firing are here¬ 
with condensed into definite Rules, which all firemen 
employed on the lines of this Company are required to 
observe in daily practice: 

1. Upon arriving at their engines, firemen must 
assure themselves of the proper condition of the fire 
and the ash-pan, and see that the grates are all con¬ 
nected and in order; also that there are upon the tender 
the necessary tools for handling the fuel and attending 
to the fire. Anything in bad order must be reported 
to the engineer. 

2. Firemen must have their fire in readiness 
before the engine starts the train, and have sufficient 
fuel on the fire to “ hold ” it, and keep up steam while 
the engine is starting the train, avoiding, as much as 
possible, opening the fire-door while the exhaust is 
strong. 

3. Anthracite lumps must be broken to “ steam¬ 
boat ” size before being put on the fire. Bituminous 
lumps must be broken into pieces as near the size of 
an ordinary apple as possible, and when put upon the 
fire must be scattered over its surface as evenly as 
possible, giving the sides and corners the preference, 
but must never be thrown in heaps on any part of the 
fire. 

4. Firemen must fire lightly and frequently, and 
avoid heavy firing. Charges of four and five shovelfuls 
of coal, while running along ordinarily, constitute 
heavy firing. One or two shovelfuls per “ fire/’ under 
ordinary conditions, are as many as may be used. 


57 


5. When clinkers become formed in the fire-box, 
firemen must improve the first opportunity to remove 
them, and must not try to run the last part of a trip 
with a “ clinkered ” fire, if there is opportunity to 
clean it. The fire must never be cleaned while the 
engine is working steam. 

6. Firemen must keep the steam pressure as nearly 
within the limits of ten pounds as possible. While the 
injector is working after the throttle-valve is closed, 
the fire must be kept bright and the blower lightly 
used when necessary to prevent lowering steam pres¬ 
sure. 

7. To prevent or stop blowing off: increase the 
boiler feed; or, if necessary, close the dampers. If 
necessary to open the fire-door for this purpose while 
the engine is working, open but slightly, or swing open 
and shut. 

8. Smoking and drumming of engines must be pre¬ 
vented at stations, or while near or attached to passen¬ 
ger trains. 

9. Ash-pans or fires must not be cleaned near any 
bridge or culvert, depot or building, or on any frog or 
switch; and in all cases the fire removed from locomo¬ 
tives must be thoroughly drowned with water before 
being left. 

10. Firemen must see that a bed of fire is placed 
over the forward portion of the grates, next to the 
tube-sheet, before the engine is handled or the blower 
is used. 

11. The blower must be used only when neces¬ 
sary. At all times it must be used as lightly as possible 
to effect the desired purpose. 


58 


12. Coal spilled on the deck, or lying in the gang¬ 
way, must be swept into the coal-pit and not out of the 
gang-way. Nor must it be allowed to spill out the 
gang-way or off the top of the tender, and be lost along 
the road. 


59 


ECONOMICAL BOILER-FEEDING. 


CHAPTER VII. 

Safety the First Requirement. 

The first duty of an engineer is to be always 
alert and zealous to guard the safety of his engine and 
train. No amount of skill can compensate for any 
degree of carelessness regarding the requirements of 
safety, because a single lapse in this direction might 
cause the destruction of property exceeding in value 
any sum that could be saved in years by the exercise 
of skill in operating an engine economically. In no 
other position is an engineer charged with such grave 
responsibilities as on a locomotive. The safety of not 
only his engine, but of his own and other trains, the 
lives of many persons and many thousands of dollars’ 
worth of property, depend upon his constant care. 

An engineer’s duties are of two kinds. One kind 
relates to the proper care and management of his 
engine. The other relates to pulling his train over the 
road with safety and despatch. A good engineer 
will harmonize these two classes of duties, so that while 
the engine is made to do the work required of it, yet 
due regard will be observed to do this with as small 
“ W ear and tear ” on the engine and as small con¬ 
sumption of fuel and other supplies as possible. 



60 


Importance of the Boiler. 

The boiler is the most important part of a locomo¬ 
tive. It is the generator and reservoir of power, and 
upon its proper care and management depends the eco¬ 
nomical operating of the engine more than upon any¬ 
thing else. The cost of boiler repairs amounts to nearly 
one-third of the total cost of locomotive repairs. The 
most destructive influences that affect locomotive boil¬ 
ers are the actions of expansion and contraction of 
the metal they are composed of. These actions result 
from varying temperature. Metal expands when 
heated and contracts when cooled. These actions 
take place with every variation of temperature, and the 
resulting repeated movements of the different parts 
of a boiler are very destructive. To this cause may be 
traced the majority of leaking tubes, broken stay-bolts 
and cracked sheets. 

In Table I we see that steam of different pressures 
has different temperatures to correspond therewith. 
A variation of pressure is always accompanied by a 
variation of temperature of the steam and water con¬ 
tents of a boiler, and, of course, of the metal of the 
boiler also. To maintain an even temperature of a 
boiler, and thus avoid the damaging effects of expan¬ 
sion and contraction, it is absolutely necessary to main¬ 
tain an even steam pressure. 

The steam pressure should be kept nearly 

WITHIN THE LIMITS OF ABOUT TEN POUNDS. 

This is one of the most important lessons to learn in 
boiler-feeding, as very much can be done to increase or 
decrease the damages resulting from the varying tem¬ 
perature of the boiler, by the methods followed to sup¬ 
ply it with water. It should be the constant aim of 


61 


the engineer to see that this is done in such ways and 
at such times as will tend to preserve an even pres¬ 
sure OF STEAM. 

Some engineers aim to preserve, while running, an 
even water-level, an unvarying water-level; but it is 
much more important to preserve an even steam pres¬ 
sure; and it is also better to sacrifice the unvarying 
water-level, within reasonable limits, to the needs of 
fuel economy. 

TABLE I. 


TABLE SHOWING VARIATION OF TEMPERATURE OF BOILING 
WATER AND STEAM ACCOMPANYING VARIATION 
OF PRESSURE. 


Effective pressure 
per square inch. 

Temperatures. 

Effective pressure 
per square inch. 

Temperatures. 

Pounds. 

Degrees. 

Pounds. 

Degrees. 

Atmos- ) 
pheric > o 

212 

no 

344 

pressure.) 

240 

120 

35 o 

20 

259 

130 

355 

3 ° 

274 

140 

361 

4 ° 

287 

150 

366 

50 

298 

160 

37 o 

6o 

307 

170 

375 

70 

316 

180 

380 

80 

324 

205 

39 ° 

9 ° 

331 

235 

401 

100 

338 

245 

404-5 


Causes of Boiler Explosions. 

Both for economy in fuel and locomotive repairs, 
boiler-feeding is the most important matter in loco¬ 
motive management. It is also one of grave impor¬ 
tance concerning the safety of the engine and the lives 
of its crew. Both wrought-iron and steel boiler plates 

















62 


rapidly weaken when heated hotter than about 400°. 
This is the temperature of steam of 235 pounds pres¬ 
sure. 

It is known that there is no weakening of the 
strength of the boiler plates at this temperature ; the 
weakening begins after the sheet is heated over 400°. 
Weakness develops very fast then, and rapidly increases 
with the temperature until the metal melts and becomes 
a liquid, with no strength of holding together whatever. 
When i,ooo° hot the strength is reduced eighty per 
cent, or four-fifths. In other words, a boiler plate 
heated to i,ooo° possesses but one-fifth of the strength 
it had at temperatures between zero (o°) and 400°; 
and yet the sheet would not be red-hot at i,ooo°. 

It may be safely assumed that with water covering 
completely the heating surface of a boiler there can be 
no danger of overheating, as it is not probable that the 
steam pressure will rise above 250 pounds. But disas¬ 
ter threatens almost the moment a portion of the heat¬ 
ing surface of a boiler under pressure is bared to the 
heat of the fire. With a hot fire and a bare crown-sheet, 
probably ten or twenty seconds would give time to heat 
the metal to a temperature at which its strength would 
be weakened enough to give way beneath the heavy 
pressure upon it, for with 150 pounds working pres¬ 
sure there is over ten tons of pressure on each 
SQUARE FOOT of the crown-sheet. An explosion is then 
imminent. A large majority of locomotive boiler 
explosions occur in this way. 


63 


Marine, Stationary and Locomotive Work Con¬ 
trasted. 

Appreciating the economical necessity of keeping an 
even steam pressure on the boiler, and the absolute 
necessity of keeping the heating surfaces covered with 
water at all times, with a good fair margin for safety, 
we may pass to the consideration of boiler-feeding as 
it affects the fuel consumption of locomotives. 

Marine and stationary practice does not call for 
special skill in the matter of boiler-feeding. Such 
engines usually have to do nearly a constant amount of 
work during the time they are working. Therefore, 
all that is needed in running such engines is to keep 
the water in the boiler at a nearly uniform level, allow¬ 
ing but slight variation. 

Locomotive practice is entirely different, and re¬ 
quires an entirely different method of boiler-feeding. 
The work of locomotives, far from being constant and 
regular, is altogether of a changing and irregular char¬ 
acter. Locomotives do their hardest work in starting 
trains and forcing them into speed, and also in climb¬ 
ing steep hills with heavy trains. After the train is 
well started, the engine may be worked easier, and after 
the hill is gotten over steam may be shut off altogether. 

Thus the nature of a locomotive’s work in starting 
trains and forcing them into speed, climbing hills, and 
then running down hills and into stations with steam 
shut off, requires great irregularity in the exercise of 
power. Now working at full stroke, starting a train; 
now cutting off at fifteen inches, struggling into speed ; 
now, as speed increases, “ cut back,” to six or five-inch 
cut-off; now steam entirely shut off while the train 
runs into a station. So the round goes. A struggle. 


64 


succeeded by easy work, then a calm, soon to be fol¬ 
lowed by another struggle in which all the energy of 
the engine is exercised. 

Evidently, then, the method of continuous and uni¬ 
form boiler-feeding, that is all right with engines doing 
continuous and uniform work, is not proper for a loco¬ 
motive whose range of half-hourly work varies in every 
degree from idleness to the full exercise of its greatest 
power. As it is usually difficult to make enough steam 
to supply the needs of the engine while working at its 
greatest capacity, and a surplus of steam is formed 
during the minutes an engine is idle, working easily or 
running shut off during a day’s run, it is plain that 
Washington’s wise maxim: 

“ In Time of Peace Prepare for War/’ 

may wisely be adopted as a motto for good boiler¬ 
feeding. 

During all the minutes of inaction in the course 
of a trip, such as while running into stations and down 
hills with steam shut off, stopping at stations and side¬ 
tracks, and switching, great care should be taken to 
judiciously inject into the boiler all the water it can 
properly hold without becoming liable to “ prime ” or 
pass water to the cylinders with the steam when the 
engine is started. By the term “ judiciously inject ” 
is meant that this should be done with care and judg¬ 
ment— judgment to dictate how much water shall 
be thus injected, and care to require that whatever 
injection is made it must be done without causing 

ANY GREAT VARIATION OF STEAM PRESSURE. 

When this practice is intelligently and zealously fol¬ 
lowed, it will be found that in all tasks of hard 
work the injection of water to the boiler may be either 


65 


made very light or suspended altogether during the 
emergency, insuring a liberal supply of steam, saving 
a GREAT DEAL OF coal and greatly lightening the labor 
of the fireman. 

A practical example: An engine is ready to start 
with its train from some stop of a few minutes’ dura¬ 
tion along the road. If the injection has been continued 
during the stop, it is probable that the gauge-glass is 
two-thirds full of water. At starting, the injector may 
be shut off and the first half-mile, or mile, may be run 
with no feed-water entering the boiler. By this time 
probably the water-level has decreased to half a gauge- 
glass full a liberal margin for safety, usually. But 
the hard task of work is over, the train is running fast 
and the engine is working easily. The demand on the 
fire is much less and the injector may now be started 
under much better conditions, as the supply of heat is 
enough for the needs of the engine. 

This plan of management, with necessary varia¬ 
tions to suit, can be easily and very properly followed 
in all the changing kinds of work on daily runs, with¬ 
out any damage to the boiler if a steady steam pres¬ 
sure is kept up, and, as stated, with great saving of 
fuel and fireman’s labor. 


66 


CHAPTER VIII. 

Steam Formation. 

The term “atmospheric pressure” means the weight 
or pressure of the air at the level of the sea — about 
fifteen pounds per square inch. In Table I we see that 
steam of this pressure is 212 0 hot; also that steam of 
150 pounds pressure is 366° hot. Why is there this 
great difference of temperature? 

The explanation is this: Steam forms in bubbles 
from the water in contact with the heating surface of 
a boiler. The bubbles must form under all the 

PRESSURE THERE MAY BE, whether of AIR Or STEAM. 
The ability of the bubble to form depends upon the 
strength of its steam to displace its volume of water. 
It must MAKE A PLACE FOR ITSELF IN THE WORLD, and 
to do so must actually rise up under the pressure from 
above. The greater the pressure the more difficult it is 
for the bubble of steam to form — it must have greater 
strength to do so. As its only source of strength is 
heat, it must therefore have more heat to be able to 
form under a heavy pressure than under a light pres¬ 
sure. When it has the added heat it is hotter. 

Therefore, that temperature at which water boils, 
called the “boiling point,” depends altogether on 
the pressure upon the water. Under the pressure 
of the air only, water boils at 212 0 , making steam of 
atmospheric pressure and 212 0 temperature. Under 
150 pounds steam pressure water must be heated 154 0 
hotter — to 366° to make it boil. It will then generate 
steam of 150 pounds pressure and 366° temperature. 


67 


In all cases the steam and the water it comes from 
are equally hot; one is as hot as the other. The 
steam has about two-thirds more heat in it than the 
water has; but this extra heat is used up in the work 
of turning the water into steam; being so used up it 
does not make the steam any hotter than the water. 

The fact concerning steam formation that it is most 
necessary for every engineer to grasp and clearly 
understand is that, roughly speaking, water turned to 
steam of high pressure requires, first, one-third of the 
necessary heat to raise its temperature to the boiling 
point; and, second, the other two-thirds to turn it 
INTO STEAM. 

This fact is one of utmost importance in loco¬ 
motive boiler feeding. The steam and water con¬ 
tents of a boiler with 150 pounds of pressure on being 
366° hot, all the water that is injected into it at once 
absorbs sufficient heat to rise to this temperature, and 
in doing so becomes stored with one-third of the heat 
needed to turn it into steam. 

The Boiler a Store-house for Heat. 

There is room for 400 gallons of water in an ordi¬ 
nary wagon-top boiler, in the space indicated by the 
water-glass. 

A rise or fall of one inch of water in the glass rep¬ 
resents an increase or decrease of forty gallons in the 
boiler. This amount of water requires as much heat 
to raise its temperature to that of the boiler and its con¬ 
tents, 366°, as we usually get from the burning of a 
shovelful of coal. Generally speaking, whenever we 
inject enough water into a locomotive’s boiler to raise 
the water-level one inch, we put therein the means of 


68 


storing the heat from a shovelful of coal, or enough to 
turn ninety pounds of water into steam; and this 
much heat will become stored in the water if the fire 
supplies enough heat to keep up the 150 pounds of 
steam pressure. 

Under these conditions the heat stored in the 400 
gallons of water represented by a full gauge-glass, is 
all that we usually get from the combustion of ten shov¬ 
elfuls of coal; or enough to turn 900 pounds of water 
into steam. 

Advantages of Stored Heat. 

Heat is our Source of Power, because it makes 
the steam and gives it all the power of doing work it 
may possess. Understanding this, we see the great 
advantage in having such a vast store of it in reserve 
in our boiler, that we may draw upon to help the engine 
and the fireman out in the “ hard times ” of heavy work, 
when so much steam is being used that it is hard for the 
fire to furnish all the heat needed; or when this can 
only to be had by forcing the fire and wasting coal. 

With such a store of heat in the boiler an engineer 
may feel sure of having an abundance of steam during 
the performance of any hard work his engine must do. 
With such a supply of water the injection may be sus¬ 
pended for a considerable time when it is desired to 
get more steam or save coal. 

Steam is more easily obtained while the injector is 
not working, because then the fire needs to supply one- 
third less heat than when the injector is putting as 
much water into the boiler as is being used as steam. 
Of course, when the engine uses steam it uses just as 
much heat whether the injector is working or not; 


69 


but with the injector suspended then only the hot boiler 
water is used, and the one-third of the needed heat 
already stored in it, as described, comes into play to the 
great relief of the fire. 

When the steam pressure lags while the engine is 
running and using steam the injector should be worked 
finer or shut off, when safe and proper, until the desired 
pressure has been regained, rather than resort to forc¬ 
ing the fire to regain the lost pressure with the 
injector on. 

Within reasonable limits, the lower the “ rate of 
combustion ” the greater the economy of fuel. Tests 
have shown that when coal is burned at the rate of 50 
pounds per square foot of grate per hour, eight pounds 
of water can be turned into steam for each pound of 
coal; while if the rate of combustion is increased to 180 
pounds per foot of grate only about five pounds of 
water are turned into steam per pound of coal burned. 
This shows a loss of over a third of the heat obtained 
from the same amount of coal when burned less rapidly. 

This great loss is due to the imperfect combus¬ 
tion, to the throwing of more sparks, and to a larger 
portion of the heat of the fire passing out of the 
stack with the fire gases, because they pass so rapidly 
through the tubes that the surrounding water has no 
time to absorb all their heat. Thus it is always good 
practice to reduce the rate of combustion as much 
as possible while doing the required work. 

One of the best ways to save coal is to store as much 
heat in the boiler as possible, in the shape of hot water, 
during such times as when the engine is idle, running 
shut off or working easily; and then suspend or 
reduce the injection as much as is proper while the 
engine is working hardest. 


70 


If the first mile or half mile from each stopping- 
place can be run with the injector suspended, it will 
result in a large saving of fuel. The reduced store of 
hot water in the boiler can be easily made up during the 
next stop. The same applies to climbing short hills. 
The store of water can be made up while running down 
the next hill. In both these cases a great deal of heat 
that would otherwise be wasted through “ popping ” 
while running into stations, and down hills, will thus 
be saved and stored in the boiler. 

It should be kept in mind that for the preservation 
of the boiler it is absolutely necessary that an even 
steam PRESSURE be kept up. This done, no harm can 
result to the boiler by allowing the water to vary within 
reasonable limits; for if there be no variation of pres¬ 
sure there can be no variation of temperature, and so 
there can be no movements of expansion or contrac¬ 
tion of the metal of the boiler. Therefore, if the injec¬ 
tion is considerable while the engine is standing or 
running shut off, the blower should be used if necessary 
to keep up the steam pressure. 

By carefully following this method the cost of 
starting trains, and doing other short, hard tasks of 
work, can be greatly reduced, and every engineer 
should zealously improve every opportunity that offers 
to fill his boiler as full of water as it may properly be 
before starting his train; and when circumstances will 
permit, avoid putting water in the boiler while the 
engine is working hard, but draw liberally upon his 
store; for it can be easily and cheaply restored when 
steam is shut off. 


71 


CHAPTER IX. 

Careless Boiler-feeding. 

If an^injector is carelessly allowed to supply the 
boiler with more water than is being used as steam 
while the engine is engaged in ordinary work, such as 
running along on a level road, it causes much waste 
of coal. When this is the case the fire must be forced 
to furnish more heat to keep up steam than would be 
needed if the inj ector supplied only an amount of water 
to the boiler equal to that being used as steam. 

The proper way to feed the boiler while the engine 
is engaged in such work is to adjust the injector so as to 
supply slightly less water than what is being used, if 
the boiler is sufficiently full to allow of this, and then 
make up for the reduction of water when the engine is 
next shut off. 

Suppose an engine with 150 pounds of boiler pres¬ 
sure is pulling a train at a speed of twenty miles per 
hour, and using 400 pounds of water per mile. The 
fire must be kept hot enough to change 400 pounds of 
water in the boiler into steam every three minutes, or 
133 pounds every minute, if the injector supplies the 
boiler with an amount of water exactly equal to that 
being used as steam. If the injector is carelessly al¬ 
lowed to force 500 pounds of water into the boiler per 
mile run, or 166 pounds per minute, we will then have 
a surplus of 33 pounds of water entering the boiler each 
minute, above what is being used as steam. 


72 


This amount of water would hardly be noticed in 
the glass at first, as, in a minute, it would increase the 
column of water there only about y$ of an inch. But it 
affects the coal pile. Each pound of this surplus 
water on entering the boiler absorbs sufficient heat to 
raise its temperature to that of the water in the boiler, 
366°. The 33 extra pounds of water will absorb enough 
heat to turn 10 pounds of water into steam. So, to keep 
up steam, we must force the fire to the greater intensity 
necessary to communicate this much more heat per 
minute to the water in the boiler than there is any 
need of. 

The loss results from forcing the fire to furnish 
this additional amount of heat at a time when it is 
already heavily taxed to furnish the heat for the forma¬ 
tion of steam being used. 

Mistaken Opinions. 

Nothing affects the amount of heat needed to turn 
clean, fresh water into steam but pressure, as has been 
explained. Even the effect of high pressure is almost 
entirely in the way of forcing us to store a greater por-; 
tion of the needed heat in the water .before it boils; 
then less to make it boil. 

The difference in the actual amount of heat in a 
pound of 20-pound steam and 200-pound steam is only 
enough to make a pint of ice-water — cool, 56°. When 
we make a hot fire to increase the steam pressure, nearly 
all the heat is used to make more steam in the boiler, 
which, in compressing the steam already formed, pro¬ 
duces higher pressure. 

Knowing this, we see that engineers who think 
an engine “ steams better ” when the boiler (or gauge- 


73 


glass) is full of water, than when half or one-third 
full — must be mistaken, and they are. 

Each pound of water in a boiler requires just so 
much heat given to it to change it into steam, regard¬ 
less of whether it be a pound of a large or a small body 
of water. This being an established fact, the claim that 
the same amount of heat given to a large body of water 
will make more steam than if given to a small body of 
water, we readily see is entirely mistaken. In practice, 
all that affects the steaming of an engine, so far as 
boiler-feeding is concerned, is, not how much water is 
in the boiler, but how much and when water is fed to 
the boiler. 

The advantages of storing heat in idle moments, and 
using it to help out in hard work, as described, can not 
be used unless the water-level is allowed to vary freely 
to suit the needs of the work and fuel economy. 

Limits of Variation of Water-level. 

When a boiler is too full of water the space intended 
for steam room is lessened, which limits the volume of 
steam that may be formed. When the throttle is 
opened and a large part of this steam escapes from the 
boiler, the pressure on the surface of the water is sud¬ 
denly reduced, and violent boiling occurs, throwing 
spray into the steam, which carries it to the cylinders, 
where it washes the oil from the surfaces of the valves 
and cylinders. The place for water is in the tender or 
the boiler — not in the cylinders, where its work is 
altogether evil and dangerous. Water, although a 
liquid, is yet as solid and incompressible as iron when 
confined where it can not escape — as many shattered 
cylinder heads have shown. 


74 


To avoid the opposite extreme, the water-level 
should never be allowed to fall below a good fair mar¬ 
gin for safety. The best results will follow a medium 
between extremes. 

Generally, within two inches of the top and 

THREE INCHES OF THE BOTTOM OF THE GLASS WILL BE 
THE PROPER LIMITS OF VARIATION OF THE WATER-LEVEL. 



75 


RULES FOR BOILER-FEEDING. 

The Instructions on economical boiler-feeding 
are herewith condensed into definite Rules, which all 
engineers employed on the lines of this Company are 
required to observe in daily practice: 

1. Engineers are responsible for the constant 
maintenance of a safe supply of water in the boiler; 
also for the observance of proper methods of boiler¬ 
feeding, whether by themselves or firemen, in accord¬ 
ance with these instructions. 

2. The steam pressure must be kept approxi¬ 
mately within the limits of ten pounds. 

3. Opportunities for storing hot water in the 
boiler must be improved when this can be easily done, 
to help the engine when the work is heavy, and save 
coal. 

4. Surplus steam must not be permitted to 
blow off, if there is proper room for more water in the 
boiler. 

5. It must be understood that nothing in these 
Instructions will be accepted as an excuse for careless¬ 
ness that results in damage to engines or delay to trains 
in any way. Safety and the prompt movement of 
trains are of first importance ; and no risks of dam¬ 
age or delay must be run to save fuel. 


76 


The engineer who uses late cut-offs, and then 
throttles and “wiredraws” his steam down to low 
pressure, makes ineffective the builder’s wisest and 
most careful plans for the engine’s economical use 
of steam. 


77 


ECONOMICAL USE OF STEAM. 


CHAPTER X. 

Expansive Force of Steam. 

The coal consumption of locomotives depends 
directly and mainly on the quantity of steam used in 
doing the required work. It is well known that the 
quantity of steam used to do a given amount of work 
depends upon the manner of its use in the cylinders 
of the engine. 

A pound of water converted into steam of atmos¬ 
pheric pressure forms 27 cubic feet of steam. When 
turned into steam of 150 pounds pressure it forms 2^4 
cubic feet. In this case the same amount of steam is 
compressed into a space one-tenth that of steam of 
atmospheric pressure. 

Being compressed it is exactly like a compressed 
spring, and, if allowed, will expand until it equals the 
volume of steam of atmospheric pressure. It can per¬ 
form work in expanding. If confined in a cylinder 
containing a piston it will, if of enough pressure — 
push the piston to the end of the stroke. 

'Steam is used in two different ways — at full 
stroke, and at cut-offs, varying from four, five, six 
and seven inches (called “ short cut-offs”) to eight, 
nine, ten, eleven and twelve inches, called “late cut¬ 
offs.” ' 



78 


At full stroke, usually steam of low pressure is 
used, by “ throttling ” or otherwise, and the steam 
pushes the piston, without being cut off and without 
expanding, to the end of the stroke, escaping through 
the exhaust passage near the end of the stroke, at the 
same pressure it began the stroke. 

At a short cut-off, steam of high pressure • is 
usually admitted to the cylinder while the piston is 
moving over about the first quarter of the stroke, say 
six inches, and the supply from the boiler is then cut 
off by the valve. No more steam is admitted to the 
cylinder for that stroke. Then the imprisoned steam 
expands, and with its expansive force pushes the pis¬ 
ton to the end of the stroke, escaping through the 
exhaust, increased in volume four times, but 
decreased in pressure to one-fourth that it was when 
cut off. 

This is the “ expansive use of steam.” 

Using steam at full stroke is very wasteful, com¬ 
pared with using it at a short cut-off, as this illustration 
will show: 

If in a stroke of the piston in a locomotive cylinder 
18 inches in diameter, steam of 77 pounds pressure is 
admitted during the full stroke — nearly six-tenths 
of a pound of steam will be used. 

If in a stroke of the same piston, steam of 140 
pounds pressure is admitted during six inches of the 
stroke, and then cut-off, there will be the same aver¬ 
age pressure on the piston during the stroke; but only 
about three-tenths of a pound of steam will be used, 
or one-half less than at full stroke, although the pres¬ 
sure on the piston, and therefore the work done in both 
cases, is the same. 


79 


A late cut-off, as at 12 inches, will reduce the expan¬ 
sion of steam and resulting economy one-half, and 
so on. 

As before stated (page 72) there is very little more 
heat in high than in low pressure steam. In the case 
of short cut-off we have just considered, a pound of 
coal would furnish all the heat needed by the steam 
used in running a mile and a half to raise its pressure 
from 77 to 140 pounds. In using the expansive force 
of the high pressure steam by cutting it off early in the 
stroke — 478 pounds less steam, or 80 pounds less coal 
would be used in running the mile and a half than in 
doing the work at full stroke. 

Since the discovery of this great advantage the 
direction of the best practice has been constantly toward 
using higher pressures and greater expansion. There¬ 
fore the strongly built boilers of today, carrying 150 
and 200 pounds pressure; close-notched reverse-lever 
quadrants to give fine graduations of the cut-off; and 
finally “ compound " cylinders to use the expansive 
force of the steam to the utmost, and reduce its pres¬ 
sure as low as possible before it is lost through the 

EXHAUST. 

Of all the heat we put into water to- raise it to the 
boiling point, then to turn it into steam of high pres¬ 
sure, only that given up by the fall of high pressure 
steam to low pressure is turned into work in the cyl¬ 
inders. This is but a one-fortieth part of the whole. 
The balance, thirty-nine fortieths, is wasted in the 
exhausts. Therefore, it is plain that very careful 
efforts should be made to use the expansive force of our 
steam to the greatest possible extent before we let it 
escape through the exhausts. 


80 


Wastefulness of Late Cut-offs. 

In starting trains it is, of course, necessary to work 
the engine full stroke and “ throttle ” the steam so as 
to avoid slipping the driving wheels, which is liable to 
pull off pins and break side-rods; and also affects the 
fire badly and causes waste of fuel. 

But in forcing trains into speed and pulling them 
over the road the use of the expansive force of steam 
offers the greatest chance we have to economize in the 
use of steam and fuel. While doing such work the 
engine should be run with the throttle wide open, 
allowing the steam to enter the cylinders at as near the 
boiler pressure as possible, and then cut it off as early 
in the stroke as is consistent with the work to be done. 

Running with the reverse lever latched in the quad¬ 
rant notches where the valves are caused to cut off at 
eight, ten or twelve inches of the stroke, and then regu¬ 
lating the power of the engine by increasing or decreas¬ 
ing the pressure of the steam in the cylinders with the 
throttle, is very wasteful, and should be avoided as 
much as circumstances will permit. 

In the construction of modern locomotives the build¬ 
ers have taken great care to provide for the free and 
easy passage of the steam through a large throttle 1 
opening into a dry-pipe and steam-pipes of even 
LARGER INSIDE SPACE THAN THE THROTTLE OPENING, 

so that there may be no possibility of retarding in 
any way the flow of steam to the cylinders at full 

BOILER PRESSURE. 

The engineer who uses late cut-offs, and then 
throttles and “wire-draws” his steam down to low pres¬ 
sure, makes ineffective the builder’s wisest and most 
careful plans for the engine’s economical use of steam. 


81 


With the modern close-notched reverse-lever quadrant 
and balanced valves, no excuse exists for this wasteful 
practice. 

In order to clearly understand the evils and waste 
of throttling and wire-drawing steam, let us take three 
examples of the work of steam in a locomotive’s cylin¬ 
ders while cutting off at six, eight and ten inches of the 
stroke, respectively, in each case doing the same amount 
of work, and notice the difference in the amount of 
steam used in the several examples. # 

First Example—Six-inch Cut-off. 

With an engine having cylinders 18 by 24 inches, 
and 145 pounds boiler pressure, we admit steam of 140 
pounds pressure through a wide open throttle to 
the cylinders until cut off at six inches of the stroke. 

We will watch the work of the steam in one cylin¬ 
der, which will show what takes place in both. 

The smooth face of the piston presents a surface of 
254^ square inches. Each inch the piston moves 
leaves a space behind it of 2543^ cubic inches. In this 
way the volume and weight of steam in the cylinder at 
any point of the stroke may be measured, as the weight 
of any volume of steam of any given pressure is known. 

Our cut-off is six inches, and when the piston has 
moved six inches of the stroke we have admitted nearly 
nine-tenths of a cubic foot of steam, which at this pres¬ 
sure weighs three-tenths (.3129) of a pound. 

Steam is cut off from the cylinder by the valve at 
this point, and the steam imprisoned in the cylinder 
like a compressed spring overcomes the resistance of 
the piston, and in forcing it to the end of the stroke 
expands to four times it volume, and decreasing in 


82 


pressure as it expands, is, at nearly the end of the 
stroke, exhausted at a pressure of 35 pounds. 

The average pressure upon the piston during the 
stroke was 77 pounds per square inch. 

Second Example — Eight-inch Cut-off. 

With the same engine and cylinder and pressure in 
the boiler, we admit steam to eight inches of the 
stroke before cutting it off; and as we only wish the 
engine to perform the same amount of work as in the 
first example, we must throttle the steam, and reduce 
its pressure as it enters the cylinder to 117 pounds. 

This pressure will, when cut off at eight inches, 
cause 77 pounds average pressure on the piston during 
the stroke. In allowing the steam to follow the piston 
eight inches of its stroke we admit 1.18 cubic feet of 
steam, which at this pressure weighs a little over one- 
third (.347) of a pound. In this case, while doing the 
same work, we have used three-hundredths (.0342) of 
a pound of steam more than in the first example. 

The steam in this case expands to but three times 
its volume and escapes through the exhaust at 39 
pounds pressure. We have measured the loss for one 
stroke of one piston; let us measure the loss for a com¬ 
plete revolution of the driving-wheels, during which 
each piston would make two strokes — four in all; 
''So 4 X .0342 — .1364 — over an eighth of a pound. 

If our driving wheels are'63 inches in diameter they 
will revolve 320 times in running one mile> As we are 
wasting an eighth of a pound of steam per revolution, 
we will waste 320 X .1364 = 43.6 pounds of steam in 
running one mile under the conditions of this example. 


83 


Third Example — Ten-inch Cut-off. 

We will in this case allow the steam to follow the 
piston ten inches of the stroke before cutting it off, 
and we will throttle the steam still more than in the last 
example, so that the engine shall perform the same 
amount of work. 

The steam is throttled to 103 pounds pressure, 
which at this cut-off will cause an average pressure of 
77 pounds. At this cut-off we admit 1.47 cubic feet of 
steam, which at this pressure weighs nearly half a 
pound (.403), five hundredths (.056) of a pound more 
than in the last example, and nearly a tenth of a pound 
(.091) more than in the first example; yet the work 
done in each case has been the same. 

In this last example steam would expand but two 
and a half times and would escape at 43 pounds 
pressure. 

An engine run in this way one mile would waste 116 
pounds of steam as compared with the first example. 
Of course a pound of steam is a pound of water 
turned into steam. As in locomotive practice we aver¬ 
age about six pounds of water turned into steam per 
pound of coal burned, the 116 pounds of steam we are 
wasting per mile under the conditions of the last exam¬ 
ple, in doing the same work as in the first example, 
means a useless loss of 20 pounds of coal per mile, 
amounting to a loss of a full ton of coal in a trip of 
100 miles. 


*84 


CHAPTER XI. 

Cylinder Condensation. 

While the three examples in Chapter X do not 
show all the actions of steam in a cylinder during a 
stroke of the piston, one of which has a tendency to 
counteract the advantages of high initial pressure 
(pressure at beginning of stroke), and early cut-off, 
yet the examples fairly show the economy of running 
a locomotive with a full throttle, and as early a cut-off 
as possible consistent with the work to be done, and the 
waste of steam and fuel from running with a light 
throttle and a late cut-off. 

Cylinder condensation limits the economical use 
of the expansive force of steam, and it is present in all 
cylinders of engines running with an early cut-off. It 
is caused by the metal of the cylinders taking heat from 
the steam and conducting it away. It is a source of 
loss, and increases generally as the cut-off is shortened, 
and finally limits the economical use of the expansive 
force of steam, making compound cylinders necessary. 

By studying Table II, showing the temperatures 
of steam at various pressures, the cause of cylinder 
condensation can be understood through the following 
explanation: 

Turning to the Third Example in Chapter X, we 
see that in this case steam was admitted to the cylinder 
at 103 pounds pressure and exhausted at 43 pounds 
pressure. Consulting Group I in the table, we see that 
the temperature of the steam when admitted to the cyl¬ 
inder at 103 pounds pressure — called “ initial pres- 


85 


sure ”— was 339.9 degrees, and that its temperature 
when exhausted was 290.4 degrees, a difference of 
nearly fifty degrees. 


TABLE II. 


TABLE COMPARING THE TEMPERATURE OF INITIAL AND 
EXHAUST STEAM, AND SHOWING THE CAUSE OF 
CYLINDER CONDENSATION. 


Effective Pressure. Temperatures. 


I. 

f Initial, 

103 lbs. 


\ Exhaust, 

43 “ .... 


II. 

f Initial, 

117 “ .... 

.348.3° 

\ Exhaust, 

39 “ ...• 

.285.9° 

III. 

f Initial, 

140 “ .... 

.361.o° 

\ Exhaust, 

35 “ .... 


IV. 

f Initial, 

245 “ .... 


\ Exhaust, 

0 “ .... 



Difference of 
Temperature. 

....49.5° 
....62.4° 

....8o.O° 

...I92.O 0 


Of course, the temperature of any pressure of steam 
is given to whatever metal surface it comes in contact 
with, even though the contact be for a very short time, 
like the fraction of a second. If there were very wide 
differences of temperature between the steam and the 
metal surface it touches, then the temperature of each 
would be changed a good deal. If the metal were very 
cold and the steam very hot, then the metal would be 
greatly heated and the steam would be badly chilled, 
causing some of the steam to condense and return to 
water. 

This is exactly what takes place in the cylinder of 
an engine when the initial pressure and temperature of 
the steam admitted to the cylinder is very high, and the 
exhaust pressure and temperature is very low. 

The result of this fall of temperature between the 
initial and exhaust pressures is that the temperature of 
the steam at the point of exhaust is given to the walls of 














86 


the cylinder at the exhaust end. The cylinder head, 
and about six inches of the walls of the cylinder at the 
exhaust end are made about fifty degrees colder than 
the same parts of the cylinder at the initial end. This 
would not result badly if we always admitted and 
exhausted the steam from the same ends of the cylin¬ 
der ; but our practice is contrary to this, so the end of 
the cylinder that is chilled by the lowered temperature 
of the escaping exhaust steam is a moment later 
brought in contact with the hot, high initial-pressure 
steam of a new stroke. 

In the case we are considering (Third Example, 
Chapter X), the initial pressure steam for the new 
stroke would, on entering the cylinder, come into con¬ 
tact with metal surfaces 50 degrees colder than its 
own temperature. 

The steam used in locomotive practice is always 
ready to condense into water as soon as it is deprived 
of any heat in any way. So when our new hot steam 
touches the colder surface of the cylinder, chilled by 
the previous escaping exhaust, a portion of the new 
steam is condensed and becomes water. This is called 

“ CYLINDER CONDENSATION.” 

It is plain, then, that the greater the difference of 
temperatures between the initial and exhaust pressures, 
and therefore between the hot initial steam and the 
cooled surfaces which first receive it in the cylinder, 
the greater will be the amount of cylinder condensa¬ 
tion, and its consequent loss; because the steam that 
is condensed is “ put out of action,” and can do no 
work. 

Passing to the consideration of the Second Exam¬ 
ple, Chapter X, we see by Group II in our table 
that the temperature of the initial steam was 348.3 


87 


degrees, and that of the exhaust steam was 285.9 de- 
grees, a difference of 62.4 degrees. Also Group III, 
in the table, shows the difference of temperature 
between the initial and exhaust pressures of the steam 
as described in the First Example. The difference in 
this case is 80 degrees. 

These figures teach the truth of the fact that while 
more steam and heat were used to do a given amount 
of work in the second example than in the first exam¬ 
ple, and again more in the third example than in the 
second example, yet the loss through cylinder conden¬ 
sation must have been greater in the first example than 
in either of the other two. 

To make this matter perfectly plain, Group IV in 
the table is arranged. Let us imagine that steam of 
245 pounds pressure is admitted to a cylinder and cut¬ 
off and made to expand until at the end of the stroke 
its pressure is only equal to that of the atmosphere. 
Its initial temperature would be 404 degrees, and it 
would leave the cylinder reduced to 212 degrees — 
192 degrees colder than when it began the stroke. Then 
let us further imagine the beginning of a new stroke, 
in which steam of great heat would rush into contact 
with cylinder surfaces 192 degrees colder than itself. 
The amount of condensation would doubtless be very 
great and very wasteful. 

The foregoing explains the value of “ compound 
cylinders in which to use steam that is required 
to expand to many times its initial volume. With two 
or more cylinders used in the process, there is less cyl¬ 
inder condensation, because very great differences be¬ 
tween the temperature of the initial and exhaust steam 
in any one cylinder are thereby avoided. 

Notwithstanding these facts it is now necessary 


88 


to say that in ordinary locomotive practice the only 
limit of the extent to which steam may properly be 
USED EXPANSIVELY, IS THE WORK TO BE DONE, as the 

advantages of thus using to the greatest possible de¬ 
gree the expansive force of steam are not confined to 
the saving of heat in the quantity of steam used; there 
are other important advantages which more than coun¬ 
terbalance all evils of cylinder condensation, and these 
will now be explained. 

Exceptional Advantages in Locomotive Practice 
of Using Steam Expansively. 

Again referring to the three examples of using 
steam, it will be remembered that with a six-inch cut¬ 
off the exhaust steam escaped from the cylinder at 35 
pounds pressure; with an eight-inch cut-off the ex¬ 
haust pressure was 39 pounds; and, with a ten-inch 
cut-off, the exhaust pressure was 43 pounds, respec¬ 
tively, increasing in pressure as the length of the cut¬ 
off INCREASED. 

As with locomotives it is necessary to use the 
escaping exhausts to produce the necessary draft 
through the fire, it will be seen that, because of this, 
by using in our cylinders steam of high initial pressure, 
with early cut-offs, we gain a fourfold advan¬ 
tage: First, there is less steam in the cylinders to be 
exhausted; second, being at a lower pressure it is 
more easily exhausted; third, the steam more fully 
escapes from the cylinder, leaving less to be reimpris¬ 
oned in the cylinder and cause back pressure; fourth, 
escaping through the nozzles at a lower pressure, the 
force of the exhausts is less and causes a milder draft 
through the fire, burning less coal and allowing the 


89 


hot gases from the fire to pass from the fire-box and 
through the tubes with a slower motion, and therefore 
remain longer in contact with the heating surface, 
which, AS THE PASSING OF HEAT THROUGH METAL RE¬ 
QUIRES time, allows more of the heat to be given to the' 
water in the boiler. 


90 


CHAPTER XII. 

The Indicator and What it Shows. 

The accompanying illustration shows an “ indi¬ 
cator.” It consists principally of a steam cylinder A 
and a paper drum B. The cylinder contains a piston 
which is pushed upward by the pressure of steam 
admitted beneath it. The upward movement of the 
piston compresses a spiral spring inside the cylinder, 
and when the steam pressure beneath the piston falls, 
this spring expands and pushes the piston down again. 
Steam is conducted from the cylinder of the engine 
through a pipe to the indicator cylinder, and admitted 
at the bottom, C. 

Thus through the steam pressure beneath, and the 
expansion of the compressed spring above, the indica¬ 
tor piston is given alternate movements up and down, 
which exactly correspond with the varying pressure 
of steam in the cylinder of the engine while it is 
working. 

The indicator’s purpose is to record the variations 
of pressure exerted in an engine’s cylinder during cer¬ 
tain strokes of its piston. To accomplish this, an 
upright rod D is attached to the top of the indicator 
piston, and is thereby given its upward and downward 
movements. 

This piston-rod imparts its movements through the 
link E to the lever F, which at G holds a pencil. The 
upright piece H has a curved slot inside, in which a 
roller attached to the lever F moves and is held so as 


91 


to cause the pencil to draw a straight line up and 
down, instead of a curved one. 

The paper drum B is mounted so it will revolve for¬ 
ward and backward, and is covered with a sheet of 
paper, or a “ card.” If steam is admitted to the indi- 



A LOCOMOTIVE INDICATOR. 

cator cylinder, its piston will rise, push up the lever F, 
and make the pencil draw a line on the card that will 
indicate the steam pressure by the height to which 
it extends. 

If the drum is revolved before steam is admitted to 
the indicator, the pencil, resting at its lowest position, 






















92 


will draw a straight line around the card on the drum, 
near the bottom. Because no pressure but that of the 
atmosphere is active in the instrument at this time, 
this is called the “atmospheric line.” 

If the drum is again revolved while steam of steady 
pressure is admitted to the indicator, the pencil will 
rise and draw a parallel line above the atmospheric 
line at a height corresponding with the pressure of the 
steam above the atmosphere. If during the revolution 
of the drum there should be a rise or fall of steam 
pressure, the pencil would move correspondingly up or 
down, and indicate the variations on the card. 

This is the way the indicator works in practice to 
show what takes place in the cylinders of working loco¬ 
motives and other steam engines. 

The cord I encircles the drum, and is attached to a 
lever that receives a “ to and fro ” motion from the 
cross-head of the engine. As the cord can pull the 
drum around only one way, a coiled spring is placed 
inside the drum to draw it back when the cord is 
relaxed. In this way the drum is made to revolve once 
while the cross-head is making a stroke. 

As the tension of the indicator’s spring exactly bal¬ 
ances the steam pressure that compresses it, and as the 
drum is revolved by the strokes of the cross-head, the 
pencil can*trace on the card an accurate record of the 
action of the steam in the engine’s cylinder during any 
stroke of the piston. 

Diagram No. i shows the record that the indicator 
would give of the action of steam in a locomotive’s 
cylinder during a stroke of the piston under theoretic¬ 
ally perfect conditions. The piston is at the beginning 
of a stroke. The throttle is open, letting steam of 150 


93 


0 


pounds’ pressure flow to the cylinders of both the 
engine and the indicator. The pistons in each move. 
That of the indicator rises and makes the pencil draw 
the “admission line ” on the card from X to A, rising 
to show 150 pounds pressure. 

As the cross-head moves on its stroke, the drum 
is revolved, and the pencil draws the “ steam line,” 
A to B } during the first eight inches of the stroke. 
Steam is cut off at eight inches, and expanding, falls 
in pressure, and the pencil draws the “ expansion 


-STROKE OF PISTON - INCHES- 



curve,” from B to C, until at seventeen inches of the 
stroke the exhaust port is opened and the pencil, fall¬ 
ing suddenly with the pressure, draws the “ exhaust 
line,” C to Ey to the end of the stroke, twenty-four 
inches. 

The events of the return stroke are described on the 
diagram also. At the beginning of the return stroke, 
the steam of the stroke just finished has all escaped 
from the cylinder, so the pencil falls to the atmospheric 
line and, returning as the drum recoils, draws the 
“ back pressure line,” E to F } right over it, indicating 
no back pressure, until, near the end of this stroke, the 




















94 


exhaust port is closed and the imprisoned air in the 
cylinder, compressed by the advancing piston, rises in 
pressure, and the pencil draws the “ compression 
curve,” F to G. An inch before the piston reaches the 
end of this stroke, the valve opens the steam port and 
the pencil draws the “ pre-admission line,” G to H. 

Practical Proof of the Economy of Short 
Cut-offs. 


The following diagrams, No. 2 and No. 3, were 
taken by an indicator in the way described from a loco¬ 
motive in passenger service, and they are shown here 



DIAGRAM No. 2. FULL THROTTLE. 

Showing steam of 140 pounds pressure cut off at 8 inches of the stroke, the 
exhaust beginning within 6 inches of the end of the stroke 
when the pressure was 38 pounds. 

as a final and practical illustration of the important 
matter we have been considering — the economy of 
short cut-offs. 

Diagram No. 2 was taken from the engine referred 
to. The boiler pressure was 145 pounds, the throttle 














95 


was wide open and admitted steam of 140 pounds pres¬ 
sure to the cylinders. The cut-off took place at eight 
inches of the stroke, the steam was exhausted at 38 
pounds pressure, at 18 inches of the stroke, giving an 
average pressure of 7° pounds, 186 horse-power, at a 
speed of 28 miles per hour. 

The cylinder was 19 by 24 inches, and the smooth 
face of the piston presented a surface of 283.6 square 
inches. For each inch the piston moved, the space 
left behind was 283.6 cubic inches. 


130 lbs. 



ATMOSPHERIC LINE - 0 - 

DIAGRAM NO. 3 . STEAM THROTTLED. 


Showing steam of 130 pounds pressure cut-off at n inches of the stroke, the 
exhaust beginning within 4 inches of the end of the stroke 
when the pressure was 53 pounds. ' 

At the point of the stroke where the exhaust com¬ 
menced there were 2.95 cubic feet of steam in the cyl¬ 
inder, of 38 pounds pressure, weighing over a third of 
a pound (.374), which is the weight of steam used in 
this stroke. In one revolution of the driving-wheels 
four times this amount, or one and a half (1.5) pounds 
of steam were used. The driving wheels were 63 
inches in diameter and revolved 320 times in running 
















96 


one mile; therefore 320 X 1.5 =480 pounds of steam 
were used per mile by the engine in running under the 
conditions shown in diagram No. 2. 

Diagram No. 3. Steam Throttled. 

This diagram was taken from the same engine 
under exactly similar conditions. In this case the boiler 
pressure was the same, 145 pounds, but the steam was 
throttled to 130 pounds and allowed to follow the pis¬ 
ton eleven INCHES of the stroke before being cut off. 

It was exhausted at twenty inches of the stroke 
at a pressure of 53 pounds, causing an average pres¬ 
sure of 75 pounds, 188 horse-power, at a speed of thirty 
miles per hour. 

At the point of exhaust there were 3.28 cubic feet 
of steam in the cylinder, which at 53 pounds pressure 
weighed .526 of a pound, which is the amount of steam 
used in this stroke. At each revolution 4 X .526 = 2.1 
pounds of steam were used, and 320 X 2.1 = 672 
pounds per mile. 

While the work done by the later cut-off, as indi¬ 
cated in diagram No. 3, was slightly greater than with 
the early cut-off, as indicated in diagram No. 2, yet 
it was done at an extravagant waste of steam and 
fuel, as we shall see by comparing the two perform¬ 
ances : 

By the early cut-off, 480 pounds of steam were used 
per mile run. By the late cut-off, 672 pounds of steam 
were used per mile run. A difference of 192 pounds of 
steam per mile, which amount required 32 pounds of 
coal to convert it from water into steam of boiler 
pressure. 

So the small excess of work was performed at an 


97 


expense of 32 pounds of coal per mile, amounting to 

A TON AND A HALF WASTED IN A TRIP OF IOO MILES. 

Diagram No. 4 presents diagrams Nos. 2 and 3 
together, so their differences may be easily compared. 
The red dotted lines show diagram No. 2, and the plain 
black lines show diagram No. 3. The top line of each 

f\ 140 lbs. 

f- 1 130 lbs. ^ 



ATMOSPHERIC LINE -O- 

DIAGRAM No. 4. 

Comparing Diagrams Nos. 2 and 3 , so their differences may be seen. 

diagram shows the steam pressure in the cylindei 
during the stroke in which steam was used; the bot¬ 
tom line of each shows the back pressure during the 
return stroke in which steam was exhausted. The 
nearer approach of the bottom, or “ Back Pressure 
Line” of diagram No. 2 (red) to the “Atmospheric 
Line ” shows about six pounds less back pressure 
resulted from using the short cut-off than was the case 
in diagram No. 3, where a late cut-off was used. 

When Steam Must Be Throttled. 

Of course, even when the shortest possible cut-off 
is being used, an engine should never be worked any 























98 


harder than necessary to make or keep up the desired 
speed. Economy of both steam and fuel requires that 
an engine must always be worked as easily as possible 
to do the required work in all the time allowed. 
Therefore, if, with the shortest possible cut-off, an 
engine will yet work harder or run faster than is 
necessary, the steam must be throttled to reduce the 
pressure in the cylinders as low as desired. 

Neither should trains be forced into speed from 
stops in as short a distance and time as possible, unless 
this is absolutely necessary to make or make up 
time. A hundred pounds of coal, saved or unneces¬ 
sarily burned, often depends upon the engineer’s care 
and judgment in running the first mile from station 
stops. The engine should be worked no harder in 
doing this than is necessary to make the required 
time. Making up time pulling out of and running into' 
stopping places is an extravagant and dangerous prac¬ 
tice. The place to make up time is out on the road, 
where it can be done most safely and economically. 


99 


RULES FOR THE USE OF STEAM. 

The Instructions on the economical use of steam 
are herewith condensed into definite Rules, which all 
engineers employed on the lines of this Company are 
required to observe in daily practice: 

1. In starting, steam must be used so as to avoid 
jerking trains or slipping driving wheels. Slipping 
must be prevented by throttling steam or using sand. 

2. In hauling trains steam must be used with 
as short cut-offs as possible consistent with the work 
required; and with the throttle wide open when nec¬ 
essary to make the engine work properly at the short¬ 
est cut-off. 

3. When the shortest possible cut-off is being 
used, speed must be controlled by throttling the steam. 

4. Unless there is a train to meet or work to 
do, the full running time must be used between sta¬ 
tions, to enable the engine to haul the train most eco- 
nomically. 







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